Middle Kingdom of Egypt::

aka The Period of Reunification, 2050-1710 BC, from the reunification of Egypt under Mentuhotep II (11th Dynasty) to the end of the 12th Dynasty.  At the end of the First Intermediate Period, 2 rival dynasties, the 10th & 11th, fought for power.  The Theban 11th Dynasty ruled southern Egypt, while the 10th ruled the north.  In 2055 Mentuhotep II ascended the throne & began clawing back the north.  He achieved this in the 39th year of his reign & is called the Father of the Middle Kingdom.  During this period, Osiris became the most important deity in popular religion.  The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, ruling from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards centred on el-Lisht (village S of Cairo).  

 

12th dynasty:

1991–1778 BC, based partially in Thebes & also Fayyum; the apex of the Middle Kingdom; 8 pharaohs, founded by Amenemhat I, probably vizier to the last pharaoh of Dynasty XI.  He campaigned south as far as the 2nd Cataract of the Nile & into S. Canaan; re-established diplomatic relations with Byblos & Hellenic rulers in Aegean.  His son Senusret I followed his father's triumphs with an expedition south to the 3rd Cataract.  The next rulers were content to live in peace until the reign of Senusret III.  A prosperous & stable period.

 

genus:

in Biology, the usual major subdivision of a family in the classification of organisms, usually consisting of more than one species; in Logic, a class or group of individuals, or of species of individuals’ a kind,  sort or class.

 

cognate:

related by birth; of the same parentage or descent; in linguistics descended from the same language (e.g. French & Spanish), allied or similar in nature or quality

 

Hildesheim (Bernward’s world):

see Chapter III, page 107

 

catacomb painting:* see Endnote<A>ü

underground burial places under Rome, famous for Christian burials, a response to overcrowding & shortage of land and a change in zeitgeist.  The Roman custom was cremation; Christians preferred burial because of their belief in bodily resurrection at the Second Coming.  From about the 2nd century AD, burial of unburnt remains became fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi.  Bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes & bound in linen.  The chamber was sealed with a slab bearing name, age & date of death.  Their fresco decorations provide the main surviving evidence for Early Christian art & initially show typically Roman styles used for decorating homes, with secular iconography adapted to a religious function.

 

pillar halls (4th dynasty):

"golden age" of the Old Kingdom,  2613-2494 BC, time of peace & commerce with other countries.  Peace of the 3rd Dynasty allowed the 4th dynasty to explore artistic & cultural pursuits.  King Sneferu, 1st pharaoh of the dynasty, held territory in Libya, Sinai peninsula & Abyssinia.  The dynasty was known for its strong government as reflected in the organized building of pyramids.  Sneferu's architectural experiments led to the great age of pyramid building; it saw an evolution from the mastaba to the pyramids, of Giza.  No other period in Egypt’s history equalled thia Dynasty architectural accomplishments.

and see pages 202-203 above for illustrations

 

presentiment:

a sense of something about to happen; premonition

 

pillared basilicas (Constantinian): * see Endnote <B>

The Latin word basilica is from the Greek royal stoa (walkway)", refers to the tribunal chamber of a king.  In Rome it described a public building where courts & other official or public functions were held, the town halls of Roman life. Centrally located in every town & close to the main forum, they were rectangular with a central nave & aisles, with a raised platform with an apse at each of the 2 ends, often with a statue of the emperor; entrances were from the long sides.  They had no religious function.  As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business was part of any urban settlement.  These basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais.  The name was applied to Christian churches which adopted the same basic plan. 

see illustration on Endnotes

 

domical churches (Constantinian): see Endnote <C>

In the Byzantine period, a supporting structure of 4 arches with pendentives between them allowed the spaces below domes to be opened up.  Pendentives allowed weight loads to be concentrated at 4 points, more practical than a circle.  Domes were important elements of baptisteries, churches & tombs; normally hemispherical with windowed drums.  Roofing ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive, durable & form-fitting lead sheeting.  They often incorporated wooden tension rings at several levels to resist deformation in the mortar & allow for faster construction.  Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie rods & metal chains were also used.  Timber belts stabilized walls during earthquakes though they remained vulnerable to collapse.  The surviving ribbed or pumpkin dome examples in Constantinople are structurally equivalent & those techniques were used interchangeably, the number of divisions corresponding to the number of windows.  Aided by the small scale of churches after the 6th century, such ribbed domes could be built with formwork only for the ribs.  Pumpkin domes could have been built in self-supporting rings and small domical vaults were effectively corbelled, dispensing with formwork altogether.

 

relief ornament (5th dynasty temple): * see Endnote <D>

Until the New Empire virtually all wall-sculptures of Egypt was in bas-relief, figures project slightly from the back ground.  In the New Empire (aka the New Kingdom, between 1570 BC and 11th century BC, the 18th to 20th Dynasties) we see the use of sunken (the background protrudes in front of the figures) and outline relief (only the outlines of figures are chiselled) become the most common sculptural techniques.  In other words, the relief becomes flatter.

 

Renaissance (contradictions):

Spengler is vague here but possible ideas are the Renaissance rejection of earlier Gothic art, or its admiration of a pagan culture (as against its own Christian Culture).  Spengler is clear in his denial that the Renaissance constituted any sort of “rebirth” despite what art historians or the artist themselves thought.  It is a reflection of Faustian genius at the epochal (transition) point of Summer.

 

Dionysic-musical hostility to Apollonian Doric: * see Endnote<E>

In Greek mythology, Apollo & Dionysus, both sons of Zeus; Apollo god of the sun, rational thinking & order, appeals to logic, prudence & purity.  Dionysus, god of wine & dance, irrationality & chaos, appeals to emotions & instincts.

 

Byzantine Alexandria (450 AD): * see Endnote <F>

home to the Patriarchate of Alexandria, the archbishop of Alexandria.  The first patriarch (after St Mark) was Anianus (68-85).  Historically, this included the designation "pope" & up to the time of the First Council of Constantinople (381) the Patriarch of Alexandria ranked next to the Bishop of Rome.  It was revered as 1 of the 3 major episcopal sees (along with Rome and Antioch).  New intellectual movements influenced by Judaism & Christianity, resulted in the philosophy of Neoplatonist’s & the religion of the Gnostics & the early church fathers. 

see Chapter I, page 33

 

Byzantine Antioch (450 AD): * see Endnote <G>

Roman emperors early in the Empire favoured Antioch over Alexandria (owing to position in Egypt).  They tried to make it an eastern Rome: great pagan temples rose (temple to Jupiter Capitolinus), a forum, colonnades, an east/west arterial, Circus of Antioch, baths, aqueducts, a stoa & suburbs.  In the first century AD it became a centre for Christianity.  Its large population of Jews attracted missionaries to include Peter & later Barnabas & Paul.  Its converts were the first to be called Christians & by the late 4th century it had a Christian population of 100,000 & was the seat of 1 of the 5 original patriarchates (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria & Rome).  Between 252-300 AD the city hosted many Church assemblies.  Its most famous synods were the 3 convened between 264-9 in the matter of Paul of Samosata.  Over 30 councils were held in Antioch, most dealing with phases of the Arian and of the Christological controversies

see Chapter II, page 72

 

pari passu:

Latin (adverb) with equal pace or progress; side by side; without partiality; equably; fairly.

 

Sesostris (Greek name):

The Greek term Sesostris refers to 3 pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty: Senusret I, Senusret II, and Senusret III.

Senusret I: 2nd king of the dynasty, 1971-26 BC; one of the most powerful

Senusret II: 4th king of the dynasty, 1897-78 BC; his pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. he took great deal of interest in the Faiyum oasis & began work on an extensive irrigation system from Bahr Yussef through to Lake Moeris

Senusret III: 5th king of this dynasty, 1878-39 BC; a great pharaoh, considered most powerful ruler of the dynasty & regarded as a sources for the legendry Sesostris.  According to Herodotus, King Sesostris led a military expedition into parts of Europe, possibly into modern Romania & Bulgaria.  The historical Senusret III commanded military campaigns that led to an era of peace & economic prosperity that reduced the power of regional rulers & produced to a revival in craftwork, trade & urban development.  He was deified & honoured in his own lifetime (very unusual).

 

Hellas architecture (600): * see Endnote <H>

The Doric order was most popular style in the Archaic Period (750–480 BC) in mainland Greece & also found in Magna Graecia (southern Italy, three temples at Paestum).  The Archaic Doric is characterized by wide spread capitals compared to later Classical forms (e.g. the Parthenon).

 

Aeschylus:

see Chapter IV, page 129