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catacomb painting:*
illustration far left: Good Shepherd fresco from the Catacombs of San Callisto.
illustration centre: fresco from the Catacomb of Priscilla on the Via Salaria in Rome, Italy, are situated in what was a quarry in Roman times. This quarry was used for Christian burials from the late 2nd century through the 4th century.
illustration far right: burial niche in the Catacombs of San Domitilla with a fresco of a young Christ teaching his disciples.
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pillared basilicas (Constantinian):
The Basilica Aemilia was a civil basilica in the Roman Forum, Rome, It was 100 meters long & about 30 meters wide. Along the sides were two orders of 16 arches, and it was accessed through one of three entrances.
below: Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna, Italy, Byzantine architecture, early Christian basilica, erected at the beginning of 6th century by order of Bishop Ursicinus, using money from the Greek banker Iulianus Argentarius. It was consecrated 549 AD, dedicated to Saint Apollinaris, first bishop of Ravenna &Classe. Contemporary with the Basilica of San Vitale of Ravenna. It has a nave & 2 aisles, an ancient altar in the middle of the nave which covers the place of the saint's martyrdom, it ends with a polygonal apse, sided by 2 chapels with apses. The nave contains 24 columns of Greek marble, their carved capitals depict acanthus leaves, the leaves appear twisted as if being buffeted by the wind. .The lateral walls are bare, but were once covered with mosaics (demolished by the Venetians in 1449). The surviving mosaic decoration in the apse & on the triumphal arch are the most striking features.
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domical churches (Constantinian):
​Hagia Irene, Greek Eastern Orthodox church, Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, first church completed in Constantinople, before Hagia Sophia, commissioned by emperor Constantine I in the 4th century, completed 337 AD. It has been burnt & destroyed several times. Reconstruction under Justinian (482- 565 AD) established a cross-domed plan on the gallery level, keeping the original basilica plan at ground level. It retained its dome which is 15m wide by 35m high with 20 windows. It is typical basilica, with a nave & 2 aisles, which are divided by 3 pairs of piers helping support the galleries above the narthex. Semi-circular arches are also attached to the capitals giving additional support to the galleries above.
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relief ornament (5th dynasty temple): *
West wall of the chapel of Nikauhor & Sekhemhathor tomb, Old Kingdom, Reign Pharaoh Userkaf–Niuserre, 2465–2389 B.C.; Memphis, Saqqara, Cemetery north of Djoser complex; relief in limestone & paint.
Content: Nikauhor was a judge & a priest of Userkaf's sun temple; his wife, Sekhemhathor, was a priestess of Hathor and Neith. The false door niche on the left, flanked by figures of Nikauhor, belongs to him; that on the right, flanked by figures of the couple, belongs to his wife. Nikauhor's offering stela is missing, and that of Sekhemhathor-which originally was placed above her false door-has been displaced to the left because of the height of the wall. Nikauhor's single figures in particular finely carved; his mature, austere features are characteristic of 5th Dynasty style (as opposed to that of the 4th). The relief flanking his wife's false door is flatter and less modelled. The intervening expanse of wall shows, from the bottom, a painted dado, the slaughter of cattle, the presentation of offerings, and a game of senet being played alongside a group of musicians. Recognised allegorical meaning here-: the passage through the after world was likened to a game of senet. White outlines among and over the figures of the uppermost preserved register are traces of chair legs and the leg of a large seated figure, which belonged to an erased scene.
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Dionysic-musical hostility to Apollonian Doric: *
The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music by Nietzsche (1872), work of dramatic theory; he found in Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism & nihilism of a meaningless world. The spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering & affirming it, passionately and joyously affirmed the meaning of their own existence. They knew themselves to be more than petty individuals, finding self-affirmation not in another life or world to come, but in the terror & ecstasy alike celebrated in the performance of tragedies. Nietzsche discusses the history of the tragic form and introduces the dichotomy between the Dionysian & the Apollonian (reality as disordered & undifferentiated by forms versus reality as ordered & differentiated by forms). Life was a struggle between these 2 elements: "Wherever the Dionysian prevailed, the Apollonian was checked and destroyed.... wherever the first Dionysian onslaught was successfully withstood, the authority and majesty of the Delphic god Apollo exhibited itself as more rigid and menacing than ever." Neither side ever prevails due to each containing the other in an eternal, natural check or balance. The tragedy of Greece combined both Apollonian & Dionysian into a seamless whole, allowing the spectator to experience the full spectrum of the human condition. The Dionysian element in the music of the chorus, the Apollonian in the dialogue which gave a concrete symbolism. The Apollonian spirit gave form to the abstract Dionysian. After Aeschylus & Sophocles, tragedy died, induced by writers like Euripides & the rationality of Socrates. Euripides reduced the use of the chorus & was more naturalistic in his dramas, more reflective of the realities of daily life. Socrates emphasized reason & diffused the value of myth & suffering to human knowledge. These 2 intellectuals drained the ability of the individual to participate in forms of art, they saw things too soberly & rationally. The participation mystique aspect of art & myth was lost, and with it man's ability to live creatively in optimistic harmony with the sufferings of life.
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Byzantine Alexandria (450 AD)
For centuries Alexandria was the intellectual & cultural centre of the ancient world, famous for its library. One of the largest & most significant libraries of the ancient world, charged with collecting all the world's knowledge. Collecting books from the past its staff worked translating works onto papyrus paper. A royal mandate funded its work involving trips to the book fairs of Rhodes and Athens. The library hosted international scholars, patronized by the Ptolemaic dynasty with travel, lodging & stipends for their whole families. It was part of the adjacent institution, The Musaeum (Institution of the Muses) founded by Ptolemy I. This was a home for music & poetry, a philosophical school & a library (like Plato's Academy). It brought together the best scholars of the Hellenistic world, Greeks, Jews & Syrians. Around 100 AD this school began to break up due to poor government under the later Ptolemies, competition from new scholarly circles in Rhodes, Syria & elsewhere and growing Roman domination attracting scholars to Rome rather than at Alexandria.
Yet just as this first wave of intellectual supremacy was waning, Alexandria experienced a 2nd wave of intellectual life. The city was now home to the Patriarchate of Alexandria, the archbishop of Alexandria. The first patriarch (after St Mark) was Anianus (68-85). Historically, this included the designation "pope" & up to the time of the First Council of Constantinople (381) the Patriarch of Alexandria ranked next to the Bishop of Rome. It was revered as 1 of the 3 major episcopal sees (along with Rome and Antioch). New intellectual movements influenced by Judaism & Christianity, resulted in the philosophy of Neoplatonist’s & the religion of the Gnostics & the early church fathers. This 2nd Alexandrian school was founded by Clement of Alexandria & Origen. The mix of Jewish theology & Greek philosophy led to a syncretic mix & mystical speculation. The Neo-Platonists devoted themselves to the nature of the soul & communion with God. The school of Biblical interpretation incorporated Neoplatonism and philosophical beliefs from Plato's teachings into Christianity, and interpreted much of the Bible allegorically. One of the leading patriarchs was Cyril (376- 444) serving 412-44, when the city was at the height of its influence & power. He wrote extensively, was a leading protagonist in the Christological controversies & a central figure in the Council of Ephesus in 431. He is a Church Father & Doctor of the Church, his reputation based on his writing as well as his leadership in the 5th century.
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Byzantine Antioch (450 AD): *
The School of Antioch.
The city was also famous for its School, as 1 of the 2 major centres of biblical exegesis & theology in the Empire. The other school was the Catechetical School of Alexandria. It stressed an allegorical interpretation of Scriptures & tended toward a Christology accentuating the union of the human & divine. In contrast the theologians of Antioch held a literal exegesis, their Christology emphasized a distinction between the human & divine in Jesus & tended towards an Adoptionist Christology (a nontrinitarian doctrine, that Jesus was the adopted Son of God at his baptism, divine but subordinate to God the Father).
The school of Antioch & Arianism
Although the earliest evidence of a school emerges in 170 AD with the writings of Theophilus of Antioch, many credit Saint Lucian of Antioch (240-312) as its founder & first head. He was ordained presbyter in Antioch & has links with later Antioch theologians Diodorus of Tarsus & Theodore of Mopsuestia. He taught both Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341 AD) & Arius the presbyter. Eusebius became a famous scholar of the School (as well as a huge influence on the Imperial court); he was a leader of the Arian party. Arius became a famous heretic. Lucian was a critical scholar with some peculiar views on the Trinity & Christology which were not in harmony with the later Nicene orthodoxy. His theology is associated with the Arian controversy; Eusebius, Arius & other Arian leaders were pupils of his. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) called by Constantine I, was an effort to find consensus through an assembly representing all Christendom. One issue it settled was the Christological issue. The Church in Alexandria was split on this issue. Was Jesus 'begotten' by the Father from his own being, identical to the father & therefore having no beginning, OR created out of nothing, having a beginning & not identical to the Father. St. Alexander of Alexandria took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius (from whom the term Arianism comes), took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (316 to 2), Arius was banished to Illyria & the adopted Nicaean creed unequivocally declared the Trinitarian view. This was a blow for the School of Antioch as Arius represented Lucian, Eusebius & the School. In 341 Council of Antioch declared the Creed of the Dedication, to which Arius was linked & this was adopted by the Homoiousians party. This group believed that Jesus was of a similar substance to the Father but not identical, they followed a literal interpretation of the Scriptures & insisted on the human limitations of Jesus. It was non-Trinitarian & claimed the legacy of Lucian. The school continue to thrive, from 350-433 it reached its pinnacle. A host of religious thinkers emerge, notably Nestorius & Diodorus of Tarsus (an Arian leader), whose disciples included John Chrysostom & Theodorus of Mopsuestia (also an Arian leader).
Decline.
At the Council of Ephesus (431) Nestorius (Patriarch of Constantinople, & leading theologian of the Antioch School) engaged in a battle with Cyril of Alexandria (the Patriarch of Alexandria, 412-44). Cyril wrote extensively & was the leading protagonist in the Christological controversies. Nestorius rejected the traditional title Theotokos ("Birth-giver of God") for Mary. Cyril won the day: the Council confirmed the Nicene Creed striking a body blow against Arianism & condemned the teachings of Nestorius. He was deposed as Patriarch. The Antioch School lost prestige. After this date the school produced only 2 known authors & in the last half of the 5th century the-Eastern Churches gravitated towards the Alexandrian School of Theology, away from Antioch. Its day was over. Not only did the School of Antioch fall into disfavour but misfortune dogged the city. In 526 Antioch was severely damaged by a great earthquake. Justinian restored many of its buildings but in 540 the Persian king, Khosrau I, sacked Antioch & deported the population. The city never recovered.