Nemesis:

In ancient Greek religion, Nemesis was the goddess who enacted retribution against those who succumb to hubris (arrogance before the gods). Also named as Adrasteia or Adrestia ("the inescapable").  Her Roman name and counterpart is Invidia.

 

Ananke:

In Greek religion, a "force, constraint, necessity", personification of inevitability, compulsion & necessity; a female often depicted as holding a spindle.

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Tyche:

a Greek  goddess, the presiding tutelary deity who governed the fortune & prosperity of a city, its destiny. In Classical Greek mythology, the daughter of Aphrodite & Zeus or Hermes.  Her name means "luck" (Roman equivalent: Fortuna).  In literature, she is given various genealogies, as a daughter of Hermes & Aphrodite, or considered as one of the Oceanids, daughters of Oceanus, and Tethys, or of Zeus; connected with Nemesis and Agathos Daimon ("good spirit”).

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Fatum:

the word means fate or death; In mythology it refers to the 3 Moirai (Greek)  or Parcae (Roman) ; they controlled the mother thread of life of every mortal from birth to death; the Fates.

 

Kismet:

the predetermined course of events in Muslim traditions; similar etymology & function as Moirai;  Arabic qismat "lot" qasama, "to divide, allot", developed to mean Fate or destiny.

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Oedipus:

mythical Greek king of Thebes, tragic hero; accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would kills his father, marry his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city & family.  He is the protagonist in Sophocles' tragedy Oedipus Rex, which was followed by Oedipus at Colonus and then Antigone.  These make up Sophocles' 3 Theban plays.  Oedipus represents two enduring themes of Greek myth and drama: the flawed nature of humanity and an individual's role in the course of destiny in a harsh universe.

 

Creon:

ruler of Thebes; he & his sister, Jocasta were descendants of Cadmus & the Spartoi; figures prominently in the play Oedipus Rex.  In the absence & death of King Laius, Creon rules Thebes, offering the throne to anyone who can rid Thebes of the Sphinx.  He eventually takes the throne on the exile of Oedipus.  In Antigone Creon again plays a major role.  Thebes is ruled by the 2 sons of Oedipus until one of them, Eteocles, usurps total power.  An attempted coup by Polynices fails, leading to te death of both brothers.  Creon, in charge orders Polynices’ body to rot unburied.  Antigone objects, eventually Creon relents but not before Antigone commits suicide.

 

Aeschylus:

see Introduction Chapter 1, pages 14 and 28

 

Agamemnon:

first of a trilogy by Aeschylus called the Oresteia (458 BC); consists of Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers & The Eumenides.  They tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon. King Agamemnon (of Argos) returns after the sack of Troy (where he was a commander); he brings with him his spoils, Cassandra.  His queen Clytemnestra (already angry at his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, now jealous of Cassandra) plots his death.  She accomplishes the deed with Aegisthus her lover.  The play ends with a prediction that Orestes will return to avenge his father.

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King Lear:

tragedy by Shakespeare, 1605;  depicts the gradual descent into madness of Lear after he disposes of his kingdom bestowing his estates on 2 of his 3 daughters based on their flattery of him; brings tragic consequences for all.  It is particularly noted for its probing observations on the nature of human suffering and kinship.

 

Gloster’s house (secondary tragedy):

from King Lear; both he & Lear are tragic characters. both begin the play as moral degenerates who will be ennobled by the intense suffering that they undergo; both are manipulated & duped by their offspring and suffer pyrrhically for their gullibility.  Gloucester is duped by his perfidious son Edmund.  A naïve character, we pity the intensity of Gloucester’s physical, psychological & emotional suffering as Goneril and Regan derisorily scoff that he should ‘smell his way to Dover’ (as he has been blinded).  While out on the heath, exposed to the elements, he acquires wisdom and insight though not to the same extent as Lear.  In a similar fashion to Lear he acquires the capacity to see outside of himself.  He acquires a sense of social justice like Lear, saying that ‘distribution should undo excess and each man have enough’.   He is consumed by guilt & shame, unable to see past these, preferring to wallow in self-pity & regret.

 

Laocoön group: * see Endnote 12

(aka Laocoön and His Sons) a near life size group sculpture showing the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons Antiphantes & Thymbraeus being attacked by sea serpents.  Described as the prototypical icon of human agony in Western art, suffering is shown through the contorted expressions of the faces, matched by the struggling bodies especially that of Laocoön himself, with every part of his body straining.  Pliny attributes the work (then in the palace of Emperor Titus) to 3 Greek sculptors from the island of Rhodes.  Considered the finest example of the Hellenistic baroque.

 

Antigone:

tragedy by Sophocles (written before 441 BC); 3rd of the Theban trilogy chronologically but written first; expands on the Theban legend that predated it and picks up where Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes ends.  Antigone defies Creon’s orders & buries Polyneices.  For this she is condemned to be buried alive.  She commits suicide and Creon’s son (engaged to Antigone) tries to kill Creon only to fail & kill himself.

 

Philoctetes:

play by Sophocles written during the Peloponnesian War, first performed at the City Dionysia in 409 BC, winning first prize. The story takes place during the Trojan War, it describes the attempt by Neoptolemus (son of Achilles) and Odysseus to bring the disabled Philoctetes, the master archer, back to Troy from the island of Lemnos.  Only with his appearance at Troy can the Greeks capture the city.

 

Ajax:

Greek tragedy by Sophocles (444 BC); depicts fate of the warrior Ajax. When Agamemnon & Menelaus award the armour of the dead Achilles to Odysseus, Ajax becomes furious & decides to kill them.  Athena steps in & deludes Ajax into killing the spoil of the Greeks, the stolen cattle.  After rampaging for a time he comes to his senses & realizes what he has done. Overwhelmed by shame, he decides to commit suicide.  He does this, impaling himself on his sword.  His brother Teucer finds his body.  Menelaus appears and orders the body not to be buried (the supreme dishonour). Odysseus persuades Agamemnon and Menelaus to allow Ajax a proper funeral, pointing out that even one's enemies deserve respect in death. The play ends with Teucer making arrangements for the burial.

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Prince of Homburg:

play by Kleist (written in 1809, first performed 1821); relates to the real Prince of Homburg Friedrich von Hessen-Homburg (1633–1708) at the Battle of Fehrbellin in 1675, though  beyond the name & battle there is little historical resemblance.  The play follows the fortunes of Friedrich, his dreams, success in battle, love and as he faces death.  Ends enigmatically but not tragically.

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Character-Drama: * see Endnote 13

the primary form of drama in the West, centres on the development of a character, their experience, their growth or downfall. The character may be entirely fictional or based on a real-life person; the word dates from the Restoration (1660) becoming widespread after its use in Tom Jones (1749).  From this, the sense of "a part played by an actor" developed; such parts involve "the illusion of being a human person."  In literature, characters guide readers through their stories, helping to understand plots & themes.