Velasquez:

see Chapter IV page 148, Chapter VII pages 226, 250

 

Poussin:

see Chapter VII page 220

 

Franz Hals:

see Chapter VII page 250

 

Rembrandt:

Chapter I page 23, Chapter II page 81, chapter III pages101,103;112, Chapter VI page 183, Chapter VII, pages 220, 222, 226, 239, 243,  244, 251, 253.

 

Vermeer:

see Chapter VII page 221

 

Murillo:

1617-82, Spanish Baroque painter; known for his religious works but also paintings of contemporary women and children, lively, realist portraits of flower girls, street urchins & beggars which constitute an extensive record of the everyday life of his times.  He had many pupils and followers & the prolific imitation of his paintings ensured his reputation in Spain and fame throughout Europe.  Before the 19th century his work was more widely known than that of any other Spanish artist.  Artists influenced by his style included Gainsborough and Greuze.

 

Ruysdael:

see Chapter VII page 246

 

Claude Lorrain:

See Chapter VI page 184

 

Watteau:

See Chapter II page 87, Chapter III page 108

 

Hogarth:

1697-1764, English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic & editorial cartoonist; work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip series of pictures called "modern moral subjects", (perhaps best known being A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress and Marriage A-la-Mode);  influenced by French & Italian painting and engraving, his works are mostly satirical caricatures, sometimes bawd.   They became popular & mass-produced via prints in his lifetime.  He was the most significant English artist of his generation. 

 

Tiepolo:

1696-1770, Italian painter & printmaker from Venice who painted in the "Rococo" style.  He was prolific, working in Italy, Germany & Spain. Successful from the beginning of his career, described as "the greatest decorative painter of eighteenth-century Europe, as well as its most able craftsman."

 

Heinrich Schutz:

1585-1672, German composer & organist, regarded as the most important German composer before JS Bach & an important composer of the 17th century; credited with bringing the Italian style to Germany and continuing its evolution into the Early Baroque.   Most of his surviving music was written for the Lutheran church (primarily for the Electoral Chapel, Dresden).  He wrote the first German opera, Dafne (performed 1627 at Torgau).  His compositions reflect the influence of his teacher Gabrieli (his use of poly-choral & concertato styles), Monteverde & 16th century Netherlandish composers.  His best known works are sacred music, ranging from solo voice with instrumental accompaniment to a cappella choral music.

 

Carissimi:

see Chapter VII page 230

 

Purcell:

1659-1695. English composer; produced a uniquely English form of Baroque music while incorporating Italian & French stylistic elements; considered a great English composer.  He worked in many genres, linked to the court, the Chapel Royal & the theatre.  Notable compositions include: his opera Dido and Aeneas (1688), his semi-operas Dioclesian (1690), King Arthur (1691), The Fairy-Queen (1692) and Timon of Athens (1695), his compositions Hail! Bright Cecilia (1692), Come Ye Sons of Art (1694) and Funeral Sentences and Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary (1695).

 

Lully (Baroque opera): * see EndNote<A>

1632-87, Italian-born French composer (became a French subject in 1661), instrumentalist & dancer,  a master of the French Baroque style, he disavowed Italian influence; spent career in court of Louis XIV.  His operas were described as "tragedies in music"; the point of departure was a verse libretto (usually by Quinault); for dance pieces, Lully hammered out rough chords & a melody on the keyboard, Quinault would invent words; for the recitative, he imitated the speech melodies and dramatic emphasis used by the best actors in the spoken theatre.  His attentiveness to transferring theatrical recitation to sung music shaped French opera and song for a century.

 

Monteverde (Baroque opera):

see Chapter VII, pages 226, 230 and 249

 

old “classical" sonata:

aka trio sonata, so named as it consisted of 3 parts; it employed up to 4 instruments, 2 violins and a continuo.  Flutes, recorders, or oboes could be substituted for the violins. The second part, the continuo, has 2 parts: the bass line, commonly provided with a bass viol, violone, violoncello or bassoon and second, a harmony-producing instrument, such as a small organ, a harpsichord, or a theorbo.  It originating early 17th-century & was a favourite chamber ensemble combination in the Baroque era.  During this period (1600-1760) the sonata was loosley defined.  In general they were works to be played not sung (cantata referred to sung pieces).  The use of ornamentation (improvisational decorations) was common.  They share certain features with the canzona, notably their common use of sectional structures that differ in meter & rhythmic tempo, and their reliance on contrapuntal (melodic) texture. 

 

the concerto grosso:

VII page 231

 

the suite:

see Chapter VII page 231

 

three-part sonata for solo:

After the Baroque period (post 1760) sonatas were specifically performed by a solo instrument, most often keyboard.  Haydn (1732–1809), Mozart (1756–91) & Beethoven (1770–1827) all wrote sonatas & helped develop its mature form.  Beethoven was the most significant in this development; he composed 35 piano sonatas & is credited with bringing the sonata into the concert hall, out of the salon.  His bias towards the piano was influenced by the development of greater keyboard action & range for this instrument.  These sonatas normally have 3 movements, the first being of “sonata form”, the second slower but in a related key, the third often a minuet trio

 

function:

see Chapter II page 69

 

Bach (fugal style):

a fugue is a contrapuntal composition in which a short melody or phrase (the subject) is introduced by one part & successively taken up by others and developed by interweaving the parts.  These strictly contrapuntal compositions are characterised by distinct melodic lines for each of the voices, where the chords formed by the notes sounding at a given point follow the rules of 4-part harmony. A major feature of Bach's style is his extensive use of counterpoint as reflected in his canons & fugues.  His contributions to the fugue were so fundamental he is considered to have defined it. 

 

Bach fugue (differentiation & integration): * see EndNote<B>

Spengler is drawing a parallel between Bach fugues and Calculus.  Both are related in chronology & in their analytical function.  Following Leibnitz (1646-1716) & Newton (1642-1726), working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the 18th century.  This was the same period in which Bach (1685–1750) was fulfilling his great exploration of the fugue, with The Well Tempered Clavier (1722), and The Art of the Fugue (the 1740s).

 

Heinrich Schutz (Passions):

His early music incorporates the most progressive styles; however this eventually grew into a style that is simple & austere.  Practical considerations were certainly responsible as the 30 Years' War had devastated the musical infrastructure of Germany.  It was no longer practical to put on the gigantic works in the Venetian style which marked his earlier period.  After the war, he again wrote larger-scale compositions culminating in the 1660s, when he composed the greatest Passion music before Bach. He wrote 3 passions:

• The Passion According to St. Luke, (Dresden, 1665)

• The Passion According to St. John, (Dresden, 1666)

• The Passion According to St. Matthew, (Dresden, 1666)

 

DaIl'Abaco:

1675-1742, Italian composer & cellist; in 1704 joined the court of Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria in Munich as chamber musician, fleeing after the electors defeat at Battle of Blenheim.  In 1715 following Maximilian's restoration he returned & was appointed Concert-meister.  He continued to compose chamber music at the French and Dutch courts until 1740.  He was especially indebted to Vivaldi and Corelli.

 

Corelli (sonatas): * see EndNote<C>

Corelli composed 48 trio sonatas fundamental in the development of the modern sonata.  In his works 2 broad classes of sonata were established:  the sonata da chiesa (for use in church), which was the type "rightly known as Sonatas", and the sonata da camera (for use at court), which consists of a prelude followed by a succession of dances, all in the same key. The sonata da chiesa, generally for 1 or more violins and bass, consisted of a slow introduction, a loosely fugued allegro, a cantabile slow movement & a lively finale in some binary form suggesting affinity with the dance-tunes of the suite. This scheme was defined by Corelli who in effect made it the essential sonata; it would persist as a tradition of Italian violin music.

and see Chapter VII page 226

 

Handel (his oratorios):

Between 1708 and 1757 Handel wrote 17 oratorios; the most famous being the Messiah (1742), as well as Israel in Egypt (1739) Judas Maccabaeus (1747) and Alexander's Feast (1751).  Oratorios  are usually lengthy, based on Biblical or religious events, performed for voice & orchestra.  Unlike opera the story is told through the music, without scenery, costumes or action.  The monumental character of Handel's choral style was most appropriate to oratorios in which emphasis is on communal not individual expression (as in the opera’s aria).  He used choruses in his oratorios where in opera an aria would appear as commentary or reflection on a situation.  His chorus participates in the action ("Judas Maccabaeus"), is an element in incidental scenes ("Solomon") & even narrates ("Israel in Egypt").  Pictorial and affective musical symbolism is one of the most conspicuous & endearing features of Handel's choral writing.  He know how to write a great for a chorus, a consummate dramatist, the unerring master of grandiose effects. 

and see Chapter VII page 231

 

Bach (Baroque polyphony):

Polyphony consists of 2 or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice (monophony) or textures with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony).  It is a major part of Baroque music although forms (such as the fugue), which are polyphonic, are usually described as contrapuntal.  The fugue evolved in the 18th century from older contrapuntal forms, (imitative ricercars, capriccios, canzonas & fantasias). A fugue is characterized by 1 main theme, the subject, and the imitation of that theme by different voices, usually 4.  Bach was the most famous composer to use the fugue.   His most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in The Well-Tempered Clavier, often considered as the defining model of the fugue.  With the decline of sophisticated styles at the end of the Baroque, the fugue's central role waned, it would give way to sonata form and the symphony orchestra rose to a dominant position.

 

Watteau (as painter-Couperin): * se EndNote<D>

Spengler is making the point that Couperin’s light programmatic music is similar to Watteau’s fete-galantes.  The latter are fictional, neither moralizing or didactic but full of fun & pleasure.

and see Chapter VII page 240

 

Tiepolo (as painter-Handel):* see EndNote<E>

Both Tiepolo and Handel appealed to the 18th century thirst for drama and dramatic settings.  Tiepolo is considered the greatest 18th century Italian Rococo painter, his style based on the Grand Manner of the High Renaissance; it celebrates the imagination by transposing the world of ancient history & myth, the scriptures & sacred legends into grandiose, theatrical language.  His paintings make brilliant use of costumed splendour & monumental settings, celebrates the notion of artistic caprice & fantasy.  Likewise Handel’s operas show that he was not only a great composer; he was a dramatic genius of the first order.  Many of his oratorios, both sacred and secular (such as Acis and Galatea -1719, Hercules-1745 and Semele-1744) share the lyrical and dramatic qualities of his Italian operas.  And as such, they are sometimes fully staged as operas.  

and see above Tiepolo, and Handel (his oratorios)

 

Polygnotus:

See Chapter III page 112, Chapter VI, page 183, Chapter VII page 221

 

Polycletus:

see Chapter I page 27, Chapter III page 112

 

Myron:

see Chapter VII, page 220, 225, 226

 

masters of the Olympia pediment:

The Olympia Master is the name of the anonymous sculptor responsible for the external sculpture of the Temple of Zeus, Olympia.   The Master and his workshop were active between 470 and 457 BC (Pausanias).  The 2 pediments & metopes ascribed to him are the paradigmatic expression of the Early Classical or Severe style of 5th century Greek sculpture.

 

board-picture:

although few survive, Classical Greece highly valued individual, portable paintings on wood boards, using encaustic (wax) painting & tempera; normally depicted figural scenes, including portraits and still-lifes.  Their size was comparable to smaller modern works (half-length portrait size).  However in circa 475 BC the "new painting" movement, led by Polygnotus (500-440 BC), saw the creation of large painted friezes, painted on wood, decorating the interiors of public buildings with large & complicated subjects containing numerous figures at least half life-size & including battle scenes.

 

Apollodorus:

see Chapter I, page 35

 

Zeuxis:

see Chapter VI, page 207