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Jesuits (propaganda): *
The Ignatian retreat, using Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises & spread over a 4 four-week period of silence, was directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of mysticism available to all. He used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. His Exercises became the basis for the training of Jesuits & 1 of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats".
The Jesuits were the first religious order to operate colleges & universities as a principal and distinct ministry. They recognized the critical nature of education as a proselytizing tool. By 1556, they were operating 74 colleges on 3 continents. They also changed the content of education, implamenting a precursor to liberal education. Their curriculum (1599) incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism with studies of the Scholastics. They standardized the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry & philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature & rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.
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Francis Xavier (an original companions of Loyola) arrived in Goa, Portuguese India, in 1541. He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. The Portuguese Jesuit, António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624. Early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia except for the Philippines. Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in the Americas accelerated in the 17th century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone.
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the modern machine-technique:
Before the 18th century, the manufacture of cloth was a cottage industry, based on individual workers, labouring at home. However the development of new technologies radically changed the scene. John Kay's 1733, Flying shuttle enabled cloth to be woven faster & wider & for the process to be mechanised. Cotton spinning was revolutionized with Richard Arkwright's water frame, James Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule ( 1779). These inventions, enabled by advances in cast iron technology, resulted in the creation of larger spinning mules and water frames, housed in water-powered mills on streams. The need for more power stimulated the production of steam-powered beam engines. Surplus power capacity encouraged the construction of more sophisticated power looms working in weaving sheds. The age of the factory had arrived.
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credit economics: *
Modern credit economies (a banking system) is rooted in late medieval & Renaissance Italy. The cities of Florence, Venice & Genoa played significant roles The first banks were "merchant banks". Jewish financiers (from Spain) would lend to Lombard farmers against crops in the field, a high-risk loan for which they charged high interest rates. In this way they secured the grain-sale rights against the eventual harvest. Merchant banking progressed from financing trade on one's own behalf to settling trades for others & holding deposits for settlement of "billette" or notes written by the people who were still brokering the actual grain. In the 14th century the banks of Florence were dominated Bardi and Peruzzi Families, the most famous being the Medici bank, established by Giovanni Medici in 1397. These banks established branches in many other parts of Europe, grew is size and diversified their loans.
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dynastic-diplomatic State: *
The citizens of the nation state see their territory as semi sacred and non-transferable. The state is highly centralised with a uniform public administration; regional administration is subordinated to central (national) government. The state claims supremacy over all other associations (church, family, professiona) within its boundaries; membership is compulsory for its citizens; it has a monopoly of the use of armed force within its borders; its officers (the government of the state) claim the right to act in the name of the land & its people. A primary characteristic is the degree to which the state is used as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social & cultural life. Economic unity is promoted with the abolishing of internal customs & tolls and the creation & maintenance of national transportation infrastructures facilitating trade & travel. Another striking feature is the creation of a uniform national culture, through state policy. A uniform national language is promoted; to further this, systems of compulsory primary education and a uniform curriculum is employed.