suite (sonata like 17th century):

an ordered or cyclical set of instrumental or orchestral pieces; originated late 14th century as a pairing of dance tunes; it gradually evolved & by the early 17th century it comprised up to 5 dances, sometimes with a prelude.  The movement was often thematically & tonally linked.  An important musical form in the Baroque period.  It was also known as Suite de danses, Ordre, Partita or Ouverture as with the orchestral suites of J.S. Bach.  In the 18th century this form was eclipsed by the symphony, sonata and concerto.

 

symphony:

extended musical composition, usually composed for an orchestra; by the late 18th century the word had taken on the meaning common today: a work usually consisting of multiple distinct sections or movements, often 4, with the first movement in sonata form.  Scored for string (violin, viola, cello, and double bass), brass, woodwind & percussion instruments, requiring 30–100 musicians; notated in a musical score which contains all the instrument parts.  Musicians play parts which contain just the notated music for their own instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts (e.g., Beethoven's Ninth Symphony).

 

concerto grosso:

form of baroque music in which the musical material is passed between a small group of soloists (the concertino) & a full orchestra (concerto grosso); contrasts the solo concerto which features a single solo instrument with the melody line, accompanied by the orchestra.  Developed late 17th century (initially not called concerto grosso); A. Stradella composed the first music where 2 groups of different sizes are combined in the characteristic way.  The name was first used by Giovanni Lorenzo Gregori in a set of 10 compositions (published in Lucca) in 1698.  Corelli was the first major composer to use the term.

 

movements:

self-contained part of a musical composition; individual or selected movements from a composition are sometimes performed separately, a performance of the complete work requires all the movements to be performed in succession.  Often the sequence of movements is arranged fast-slow-fast or in some other order that provides contrast.

 

Corelli:

above page 226

 

Handel:

1685-1759, German, later British composer who spent the bulk of his career in London, famous for his operas, oratorios, anthems & organ concertos.  Trained in Halle-upon-Saale, worked as a composer in Hamburg & Italy before settling in London in 1712; naturalised British subject in 1727; strongly influenced both by the great composers of the Italian Baroque & the middle-German polyphonic choral tradition. He composed more than 40 operas over 30 years & is regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Baroque era, the monumental compositions Messiah, Water Music & Music for the Royal Fireworks reflecting his genius.  Within 15 years after coming to London he had started 3 commercial opera companies supplying the English nobility with Italian opera.  After the success of Alexander's Feast (1736) he transitioned to English choral works.  Following the monumental Messiah (1742) he never composed an Italian opera again.  The coronation anthem, Zadok the Priest (1727, composed for the coronation of George II), has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing.  Rich, respected & successful, in 1759 he was given full state honours at his funeral & he was buried in Westminster Abbey.

​

Bach:

above pages 219, 220, 222, 230

 

Infinitesimal Calculus:

term which formerly included various branches of mathematical analysis connected with the concept of an infinitely-small function.  Although studied by the Ancient Greeks & Medieval mathematician exact definitions of the fundamental concepts of the theory of infinitely-small functions were made only in the 17th century.  Fermat (1607-65), claiming that he borrowed from Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to an infinitesimal error term.  The combination was achieved by John Wallis (1616-1703), Isaac Barrow (1630 -1677), & James Gregory (1638 -75), the latter two proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1670.  Newton (1642-1726) made the key break thru when he used analytic functions to solve problems of mathematical physics.  These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Leibniz (1646- 1716).

see Chapter II page 59, 70

 

fugal style (fulfilled): * see Endnote<A>

a polyphonic composition based upon one, two, or more themes, which are enunciated by several voices or parts in turn, subjected to contrapuntal treatment, and gradually built up into a complex form having somewhat distinct divisions or stages of development & a marked climax at the end.  The term “fuga” was first applied to canonic pieces as early as the 14th century.  However the logical ancestors of the developed fugue are from the of late 16th-century ensemble canzonas (Giovanni Gabrieli 1554-1612), as well as the related ricercare, capriccios & fantasias.  It reached maturity in the 18th century, with JS Bach.

 

Euler:

see Chapter II, pages 78, 86, Chapter V page 171

 

functional Analysis (1740):  * see Endnote<B>

In 1748 Euler published his Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite which lays the foundations of mathematical analysis.  His analysis comes close to the modern orthodox discipline, the study of functions by means of infinite processes, especially through infinite series.  A function is uniquely represented by its graph which is the set of all pairs (x, f (x)). When the domain and the codomain are sets of numbers, each such pair may be considered as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane.  In general, these points form a curve, which is also called the graph of the function. This is a useful representation of the function, which is commonly used everywhere.

 

Stamitz:

1717-57, Czech composer & violinist; founding father of the Mannheim school; his work is stylistically transitional between the Baroque & Classical periods.  Appointed by the Mannheim court in 1741; in 1754 he visited Paris (staying for a year) & performed in public for the first time.  Success here led him to publish his Orchestral Trios, Op. 1 & other works.  His most important compositions are his 58 symphonies & 10 orchestral trios (which are actually symphonies for strings).  He expanded orchestration & included important wind parts.  His symphonies of the 1750s are scored in 8 parts: 4 strings, 2 horns (which provide harmonic backdrop for strings & solo lines as well) & 2 oboes (he was one of the first composers to write independent lines for oboes).  The chief innovation in his symphonic works is their 4 movement structure: fast - slow - minuet and trio- dashing Presto finale.  Such 4-movement symphonies had been done before but he was the first to use it consistently: well over half his symphonies & 9 of 10 orchestral trios are in 4 movements.  He also contributed to the development of sonata form, most often used in symphonic first movements but occasionally in finales (when not in rondo form) and even slow movements as well.

​

four- part movement: * see Endnote<C>

Composers of the Mannheim school (the product of Johann Stamitz) played an important role in the development of the classical period's genres and of the classical symphony form.  This school set the trend moving away from older Baroque patterns towards a new form.  They abandoned of the basso continuo in their compositions, they minimized contrapuntal elaboration.  One of their chief innovations is the four-movement symphony form, introducing the menuet (originally one of the Baroque suite's movements) as its third movement.  They were also key in the development of sonata form (which became the classical symphony's first movement).

 

cyclic succession(of the sonata):

the sonata is a musical structure consisting of 3 main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation; used widely since the middle of the 18th century (early Classical period). Tonal materials are presented in an exposition; elaborated and contrasted in a development; finally resolved harmonically & thematically in a recapitulation.  Each of the sections is often further divided or characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form.  After its establishment, the sonata form became the most common form in the first movement of works entitled "sonata", as well as other long works of classical music, including the symphony, concerto, string quartet.

 

string quartet: * see Endnote<D>

musical ensemble consisting of 4 string players – 2 violin players, a viola player and a cellist – or a piece written to be performed by such a group; one one of the most prominent chamber ensembles in classical music, with most major composers, from the mid 18th century onwards.  It took its current form from the work by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn, in the 1750s, establishing the genre. Quartet composition flourished in the Classical era, with Mozart, Beethoven & Schubert following Haydn in each writing a number of quartets.  Ever since the 1750s it has been considered a prestigious form and represents one of the true tests of the composer's art.

 

violin sonatas: * see Endnote<E>

musical composition for violin accompanied by a keyboard instrument & in earlier periods with a bass instrument doubling the keyboard bass line; developed from a simple baroque form with no fixed format to a standardised & complex classical form.  Since the romantic age some composers have pushed the boundaries of both the classical format as well as the use of the instruments.

 

chamber-music (highest point):

Some analysts consider the origin of chamber music to lie with the sonata da camera (chamber sonata, a suite of slow & fast movements, interspersed with dance tunes) & the sonata da chiesa (church sonata, the same movements but no dances), compositions for 1 to 5 or more instruments. These developed into the trio sonata of the Baroque.  During this period (1600-1750), chamber music was not clearly defined.  Works could be played on any variety of instruments.  Haydn (1732-1809) is credited with creating the modern form of chamber music, establishing the conversational style of composition & overall form which would dominate for the next 2 centuries.  Mozart (1756-91) greatly expanded its vocabulary adding numerous masterpieces to the repertoire.  His 7 piano trios & 2 piano quartets were the first to apply the conversational principle to chamber music with piano.  He would also introduce the newly invented clarinet, & composed a trio for viola, clarinet and piano and a quintet for violin, two violas, cello, and horn.  The end of the 18th century saw dramatic changes in society & in music technology which effected the way chamber music was composed and played.  Up to the end of the 18th century the composer was normally an employee of an aristocrat, the chamber music was for the pleasure of aristocratic (amateur) players & listeners.  With the bankruptcy of the aristocracy and the rise of the bourgeoisie throughout Europe, composers increasingly made money by selling compositions & performing concerts.  They wrote chamber music not just for rich patrons, but for professional musician & for a public audience.  By the late 1700s, the pianoforte became more popular as an instrument for performance.  Beethoven would make it his instrument of choice.  He would transform chamber music, raising it to a new plane, both in terms of content and in terms of the technical demands on performers & audiences.  In this man chamber music reaches apogee; and those who followed (Brahms) were daunted by the heights he achieved.  In his 17 string quartets he moves from classical composer par excellence to creator of musical Romanticism, and finally, with his late string quartets, he transcends classicism and romanticism to create a genre that defies categorization.

and see Chapter IV page 128

 

Polycletus (Spearman):

aka Doryphoros

see Chapter I page 27, Chapter III 112, Chapter V page 177

 

Tartini (orchestration):

1692- 1770, Italian Baroque composer & violinist.  Almost all of his works are violin concerti (at least 135) & violin sonatas; they include some sacred works such as a Miserere (1739-41) at the request of Pope Clement XII and a Stabat Mater (1769).   He also composed trio sonatas & a sinfonia in A. He never dated his work & often revised published works, even those finished years before.  His most famous work is the "Devil's Trill Sonata", a solo violin sonata that requires a number of technically demanding double stop trills and is difficult even by modern standards.

 

Nardini (orchestration):

1722-93, Italian composer & violinist, transitional musician working in both Baroque & Classical-era traditions.  He was not a prolific composer, his works are known for their melodious tunes and usefulness in technical studies.  Among the best known are the Sonata in D major and the Concerto in E minor.  The father of Mozart, Leopold, said:  "The beauty, purity and equality of his tone, and the tastefulness of his cantabile playing, cannot be surpassed; but he does not execute great difficulties."

 

Haydn:

see Chapter II page 78, Chapter VI page 207

 

Mozart:

see Chapter I, page 44, Chapter II page 78, Chapter III page 108, Chapter VI page 207

 

Beethoven:

see Chapter II, page 81, Chapter V page 177 and above page 220

 

Porcelain (minor art): * see Endnote<F>

During the 17th century imports of china become much more common, particularly of delicate wares to accommodate Europe's new craze of tea-drinking.  In France Louis XIV granted privileges to a few potters to attempt porcelain (1664).  Their experiments lead eventually to the great 18th-century tradition of French pottery of which Sèvres (a factory founded at Vincennes in 1738 and moved to Sèvres in 1756) is the leading example.  English porcelain begins at much the same time, at Chelsea in about 1743.  However, the first true European porcelain was produced in Germany. Meissen porcelain, also called Dresden porcelain, was produced at the Meissen factory, near Dresden in Saxony from 1710.  It would dominate the style of European porcelain manufactured until about 1756, after which the leadership ultimately passed to French Sèvres porcelain.  The secret of true porcelain (similar to that produced in China) was discovered in 1707 by Böttger, an alchemist & von Tschirnhaus, a physicist.  Their success led to Augustus II, King of Poland, establishing the first European hard paste porcelain factory at Meissen in 1710.  This early porcelain was smoky in tone & not highly translucent, but improvements to it were subsequently made.  The high point of artistic expression for Meissen was reached after 1731 in the modelling of the sculptor Kändler (active 1731-65).  An underglaze blue decoration called Zwiebelmuster was introduced in 1739 & was widely copied.  Porcelain artwork in the first half of the 18th century, using groups & figures were inspired by the paintings by Watteau, Lancret & Chardin.  The passion for porcelain vases originated in emulation of the Japanese & Chinese vessels which were eventually superseded by rococo style art.  However, the figurines produced in the 19th century, represented an entirely new art form. They took their themes and subjects from contemporary painting; gallant subjects and characters from the theatre of the Commedia dell’Arte.

 

espalier work:

a fruit tree or ornamental shrub whose branches are trained to grow flat against a wall, supported on a lattice; or a lattice for an espaliered tree or shrub.