Yang-chu: * see Endnote 77

[akaYang Zhu] (440-360 BC) Chinese philosopher during Warring States period; early ethical egoist alternative to Mohist & Confucian thinking; taught that everyone should mind their own business, neither giving nor taking from others, be content with what they have & in that way one will be happy & contribute to the welfare of the world.

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Mo-ti:* see Endnote 78

[also known as Mozi] (468-391 BC) Chinese philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought (early Warring States period).  The book, the Mozi, contains his philosophy; founded the school of Mohism that argued strongly against Confucianism and Taoism; emphasized self-restraint, self-reflection & authenticity rather than obedience to ritual.

 

[Spengler refers to him as “the socialist Mo-ti”]

 

Chuang-tsu:* see Endnote 79

[aka Zhuang Zhou] (4th century BC) influential Chinese philosopher, active during the Warring States period, during the summit of Chinese philosophy, the Hundred Schools of Thought. He is credited with writing a work known by his name, the Zhuangzi, one of the foundations of Daoism.

 

Mencius:

(372-289 BC) Chinese philosopher, pupil of Confucius' grandson, most famous Confucian after Confucius & one of the principal interpreters; traveled throughout China for 40 years giving rulers advice on reform during the Warring States period; served as  official & scholar at Jixia Academy in Qi (319-312 BC); on his mother’s death, took 3 years leave of absence to show devotion.  Disappointed in failing to effect changes he retired from public life.

 

Cynics:

late 5th century BC school of Greek philosophy; developed by Antisthenes, pupil of Socrates, he was followed by Diogenes; claimed the purpose of life was to live in virtue, in agreement with nature.  As reasoning creatures, people can gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which is natural for themselves, rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, sex & fame. Instead, leading a simple life free from all possessions; spread in 1st century AD, Cynics found begging and preaching throughout the cities of the empire until its disappeared late 5th century AD.

 

Cyrenaics:

4th century BC, early Socratic school; taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, not just the absence of pain but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary pleasures, the physical ones are stronger than those of anticipation or memory.  They recognized the value of social obligation (pleasure could be gained from altruistic behavior).  Died out by 3rd century, replaced by the philosophy of Epicureanism.

 

Epicureans:* see Endnote 80

founded 307 BC, based on teachings of Greek Epicurus; a materialist he attacked superstition & divine intervention; he believed "pleasure" was the greatest good, the way to attain pleasure was to live modestly, gain knowledge of the world & limit one's desires. This would lead to a state of tranquility- freedom from fear and an absence of bodily pain. These two states constitute the highest form of happiness

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“will to life”:* see Endnote 81

a phrase found in The World as Will and Representation (1818), the main work of  Schopenhauer.

 

[Spengler posits that it is an appropriate philosophy for the Winter of the Faustian (Western) Civilization and that this theme is naturally found running through many 19th century cultural classics; he goes on to reference 7 such will to life classics]

 

Tristan:* see Endnote 82

Tristan und Isolde (1857-59), opera in 3 acts by Wagner (in German), based on the romance by Gottfried von Strassburg.  Briefly Tristan, nephew of King Mark of Cornwall, is sent to fetch Iseult to wed the king. However, in passage he and Iseult accidentally consume a love potion & fall helplessly in love; the pair undergo numerous trials that test their secret affair.  Typically ends tragically with death of Tristan.

 

Siegfried:

3rd of 4 music dramas that constitute The Ring of the Nibelung- Wagner (1852-1871); synopsis: Siegfried is son of Sigmund & Sieglinde (twins of the God Wotan), kills the dragon Fafnir, acquires the treasure of the Nibelungs, wins Brünnhilde.  Schopenhauer’s influence caused Wagner to assign more commanding roles to music in his later operas, including the latter half of the Ring cycle.  This influence is also seen in Wagner's subsequent libretto.

 

[Spengler refers to this influence as “Darwin-wise asserted in Siegfried”, alluding to biological evolution when Wotan begets Sigmund & Sieglinde, who in turn beget Siegfried, who will be fearless (fittest) and win the Ring back from Fafner]

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Hegelian Marx:

(1818-1883) German philosopher, economist, political theorist, sociologist, journalist & revolutionary socialist; studied political economy & Hegelian philosophy; spent much of his life in London where he collaborated with Engels; most famous works: The Communist Manifesto (1848 pamphlet), Das Kapital (3 volumes, 1867-83).  His system developed conflict theory (based on Hegel’s Thesis/Antithesis=Synthesis model, and class identification) & argues for an evolutionary model of history, beginning with free, productive and creative work, over time becoming coerced and dehumanised; a materialist he believed this historical evolution (ending in the classless society) was inevitable.

 

Malthusian Darwin: * see Endnote 83

Darwin read Malthus and was influenced by its conclusions, leading him towards survival of the fittest concept (which ties into Schopenhauer’s “will to life” idea).

 

Hebbel’s Judith;

adaptation of the Old Testament Book of Judith; his heroine oversteps the boundaries 19th-century propriety regarding womanhood; changing the political plot into a psychological investigation, he gives Judith sexuality & beauty fatal to the men around her; left a virgin on her wedding because her beauty (or so she believes) renders her husband Manasses impotent; in Holofernes's tent, she unleashes her repressed sexuality, leading Holofernes to rape her, allowing her to behead him.  He represents the misogynist ideology of the fin-de-siecle.

 

Ibsen’s Epilogue:

“When We Dead Awaken”- play (1899); one of his most dreamlike & most despairing;  Irene (the female protagonist) states "When we dead awakenwe find that we have never lived."  While it is suffused by an intense desire for life, whether it can be achieved is left problematic, given the play's ironic conclusion (the protagonists die).  Many read his final play (stated by Ibsen himself to be an 'epilogue') as the playwright's reflection on his own work as an artist.

 

classical Scepticism:

2 philosophical schools in the Classic world.  Pyrrhonian scepticism (founded 360-270 BC) and Academic scepticism (from Plato’s Academy).  Both denied knowledge is possible & urged suspension of judgment to allow mental tranquillity.  Some claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, more extreme skeptics argued that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any view.  All the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost.

 

skepsis:

Greek; philosophical doubt as to the objective reality of phenomena.