First Law of Thermodynamics:

variation on the law of conservation of energy adapted for thermodynamic processes, distinguishing 2 kinds of transfer of energy, as heat & as thermodynamic work, relating them to a function of a body's state, called Internal energy.

 

Conservation of Energy:

in Physics & Chemistry, a law stating that the total energy of an isolated system is constant, energy can be transformed from 1 form to another, but cannot be created nor destroyed

 

Will and Space:

primary attributes Spengler gives to the Faustian soul

 

Goethe (world force):

His works in natural history include scientific research in the fields of geology, botany (Metamorphosis of Plants, 1790), morphology, anatomy (in the 1790s, he rediscovered the premaxilla in humans, the incisive bone) & optics (Theory of Colours, 1810).  He developed a phenomenological slant to natural science as an alternative to Enlightenment (reductionist) approaches.  He accepted the mathematical method was appropriate for inert nature, but less applicable in other scientific areas (biology).  His specific involvement in Physics is not documented.  Goethe’s exact religious views are disputed.  What is not disputed was his distaste if not outright hostility towards Christianity.  He was a devoted Spinozist & adopted Spinoza's concept of God - a dynamic nature in action, growing and changing, not a passive or static thing (Natura naturans).  He also showed interest in the Kabbalah.

 

Kant (on force): * see EndNote<A>

for Kant force was responsible for space, the universe, creation itself.  It predated God even and thus is classified as an entity existing without a creator or first cause (ent-in-itself).

 

Laplace:

French mathematician & scientist, produced several landmark studies of mechanics.  His analytical discussion of the Solar System (Celestial Mechanics, 5 volumes published between 1799 & 1805) translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus.  It contains methods for calculating the motions of the planets, determining their figures & resolving tidal problems, bringing theory to coincide with observation.  He developed the nebular hypothesis of the formation of the Solar System (suggested by Swedenborg & expanded by Kant).  He restated & developed this in 1796 (Study of the World system) where he envisioned that the Sun originally had an extended hot atmosphere throughout the volume of the Solar System.  In 1775 using the work of Newton & Bernoulli he developed the dynamic theory of tides, describing the ocean's real reaction to tidal forces, taking into account friction, resonance & natural periods of ocean basins.

and see Chapter II page 78

 

Newton (imagined immaterial forces at a distance):

Newton's law of universal gravitation employed the term “actions at a distance” which is the concept that an object can be moved, changed, or otherwise affected without being physically touched (as in mechanical contact) by another object thru the non-local interaction of objects that are separated in space.  He postulates an invisible force able to act over vast distances, using the Latin word gravitas (weight) for its name.  It is a general physical law of classical mechanics, derived from empirical observations & inductive reasoning, part formulated in Newton's work Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (the Principia, 1687).

 

Leibnitz (Vis viva):

Leibniz rejected the Cartesian formulation and argued that rising & falling bodies reveal a different quantity, derived from Galileo’s law of fall (mass x velocity squared or mv²).  Descartes’s quantity (mv) was wrong; mv2 and not mv is conserved.  Leibnitz called this new conserved quantity vis viva or living force (later identified as kinetic energy).  He argued force is real & more than a quantity but the basic quality of nature which can be observed.  He expanded physics to a dynamics

 

Descartes, (motion & the moved):

his Principles of Philosophy (1644) discusses the phenomena of motion, defined as “the transfer of one piece of matter or of one body, from the neighbourhood of those bodies immediately contiguous to it and considered at rest, into the neighbourhood of others”   This hypothesis of motion appears as a type of relative motion (the “relational” theory); his wording suggests that space, time & motion are just relations among bodies, and not separately existing entities.   Motion only exists as a “relative difference” among bodies: that is, the bodies do not possess individual, determinate properties of speed, velocity, acceleration

 

potentia:

Latin, force, power, political power

 

virtus:

Latin, strength, power; also courage, bravery, worth, manliness, virtue, character, or excellence

 

impetus:

Latin, charge, impetus, attempt, attack, assault, vigour, violent mental urge or fury

​

peri-phrases:

use of an unnecessarily long or roundabout form of expression

 

conatus:

Latin, attempt, effort, endeavour, design, exertion, struggle, impulse or tendency

 

nisus:

advance, depend on, press or lean upon, strive, labour or struggle

 

force (Catholic, Protestant and Atheistic notions): * see EndNote<.

Spengler is referring to the impact of Physics on different schools of theology; Christian denominations & churches were forced to acknowledge Physics & respond to its challenges, notably explanations which discount the role of God, or Creation  & its determinism eroding human freedom.  Catholics conceded Physics but claimed God had & could still intervene; Protestants conceded Physics but many retained God as the first efficient force (Creation), many side stepped the issue by claiming theology dealt with sprit not the physical world.  Atheists saw no need for God, only efficient forces.

 

Spinoza (on force):

see  Chapter IX page 307