Pericles:

prominent statesman, orator & general, led Athens 461-429 AD, the Golden Age (after the Persian invasion but before the Peloponnesian Wars); he fostered Athenian democracy & turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire; responsible for making Athens the educational & cultural centre of Greek culture, instrumental in the re-building of the Acropolis

 

Themistocles:

524–459 BC politician & general who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy, fought at Marathon & led the Greek allied navy to victory at Artemisium & Salamis (480 BC) a commoner with support of the lower-classes & opposed by the nobility; elected archon 493 BC he convinced the city to increase its naval power;

 

καλοκάϒαθία:

Greek, good luck

 

Hannibal:

247-181 BC, Carthaginian general & statesman, commander of Carthage's main army during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC); widely considered one of the greatest military commanders in world history; he is an “alien” as his Culture was not part of the Apollonian (Greco-Roman) culture

 

Mann:

German, spelling of the English word “man”

 

chevaliers (Crusades):

French, a knight, mounted warrior

 

Saxon Emperors: * <A>

aka Ottonian dynasty of German monarchs (919–1024), roots in Saxony, named after 3 of its kings & Holy Roman Emperors named Otto.

 

Franconian Emperors: * see EndNote<B>

aka Salian dynasty; a dynasty originating in Franconia which provided 4 German kings (1024–1125), all of whom became emperors (1027–1125); they did much to establish & elevate the concept of kingship & developed a permanent administrative system based on a class of public officials answerable to the crown.  During their tenure the Investiture Contest (1075-1122) played out, ultimately seeing the German kings lose both to Rome and local magnates.

 

Hohenstaufen Emperors: * see Endnote<C>

the Hohenstaufen aka Staufer or Staufen, dynasty of German kings (1138–1254) who also ruled the Kingdom of Sicily (1194–1268); 3 would become Emperors: Frederick I (Barbarossa), Henry VI and Frederick II. 

 

Henry the Lion:

1129-1195, Welf dynasty, Duke of Saxony (as Henry III) 1142, Duke of Bavaria (as Henry XII) 1156, legacies of his 4 grandparents. both duchies held until 1180; gifted with political & military acumen; ruled a vast territory from the North & Baltic Seas to the Alps, from Westphalia to Pomerania, the most powerful German princes of his time until isolated by the Hohenstaufen, who eventually deprived him of his 2 duchies

 

Gregory VII:

see Chapter VI pages 198

 

Two Roses:

reference to the Wars of the Roses, an English dynastic dispute between the Houses of Lancaster (red rose) & York (white rose) claimants to the throne, 1455 to 1485

 

Huguenot wars:

aka French Wars of Religion, 1562-98, pitted the Catholics against the Calvinists, in which some 3 million were killed or died of starvation or disease

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Spanish Conquistadors:

soldiers & explorers (often Spaniards from S & W of Spain) of the Spanish Empire who sailed from Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa & Asia, conquering territory & opening trade for Spain; starting in 1492 with Columbus in the West Indies, built an Empire in the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola, Cuba & Puerto Rico; from here Cortés campaigned (1519-21) conquering the Aztecs; next the conquistadors expanded Spanish rule to N Central America and SW USA.  Pizarro sailed to northern Peru & subdued the Inca Empire.  Using Peru as base other conquistadores conquered much of Ecuador & Chile and then onto Colombia, Bolivia & Argentina.  Others sailed from Mexico across the Pacific to take the Philippines. 

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Prussian electors & kings:

Brandenburg, a state of the Holy Roman Empire, was the seat of the March of Brandenburg (created 1157); the Golden Bull of Charles IV (1356) gave the March a vote in the Imperial election- he was now an Elector.  The early rulers came from several different dynasties but from 1415 it was ruled by the Hohenzollern & from 1618 in a personal union with the Duchy of Prussia.  In 1701 Elector Frederick III, to show his greatness, raised Prussia to a kingdom.  Emperor Leopold I allowed this as the Hohenzollern had given assistance in the War of the Spanish Succession while also supporting Habsburgs in the subsequent election.  Technically the "King in Prussia" was a fiction for Frederick was only sovereign in his duchy, within the Empire he was under the Emperor.  However by 1710 Imperial rule was nominal & member states acted as sovereign states.  Hence, though Brandenburg was legally part of the empire, it soon came to be treated as a de facto part of Prussia.  By 1713 & the Treaty of Utrecht Fredericks rule over all Prussia was widely accepted.  Throughout the 18th century, the Hohenzollerns increased their power, victorious over the Austrian Habsburgs in the 3 Silesian Wars, increasing their power with the acquisition of Silesia. 

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Bismarck:

1815-98, conservative German statesman, mastermind of German unification (1871), chancellor 1871-90 during which time he dominated European; provoked 3 short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria & France; following victory over France (1871) formed the German Empire & united Germany.   German unification & rapid economic growth was the foundation to his foreign policy; while he disliked colonialism he reluctantly built an overseas empire (as demanded by the public). He skilfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany's position in a peaceful Europe. At home, he created the first welfare state in the modern world, with the goal of gaining working class support that might otherwise go to his Socialist enemies.

 

Rhodes:

see Chapter I, page 38

 

Battle of Legnano:

turning point in 1176, ending Hohenstaufen attempts to dominate Italian city states & pope; in this battle (near Milan) the Emperor’s army suffered a major defeat & Frederick was almost killed; he was forced to open negotiations with Pope Alexander III & the Lombard League; in the subsequent Peace of Anagni (1176) he recognized Alexander as pope; at the Peace of Venice (1177) he humbled himself before Alexander III, acknowledged papal sovereignty over the Papal States & a truce was made with the Lombard cities.  Later, at the Peace of Constance (1183) Frederick conceded the right to control town magistrates & though recovering nominal authority, actually lost power to pressure Rome thru urban officers.

 

the great Hohenstaufen and the great Welf: * see EndNote<D>

this is a reference to  the conflict between Frederick Barbarossa (Hohenstaufen) and Henry the Lion (House of Welf).

 

Great Migrations: * see Endnote<E>

aka Völkerwanderung period in the history of Europe, during & after the decline of the Western Roman Empire, which witnessed widespread migration & invasions by Germanic tribes & the Huns, into the Roman Empire.  The period starts with the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in 375 & ending with the conquest of Italy by the Lombards in 568.  In 382, the Romans began making treaties with individual tribes over the settlement of territory.  The Germanic Franks, a tribe that would found Francia, were tasked with securing the NE Gaul border.  The Vandals and Suebi were the first tribes to challenge Western Roman rule when they crossed the Rhine.  Further invasions followed; wars erupted & power transferred to Germanic and Roman militaries

 

deaconess's Caritas:

love as a virtue, spiritual love extended from God to man & then reflected by man; see NT 1 John 4:8 (Deus caritas est), translated as "God is love"; Spengler’s use of the possessive “deaconess’s“ suggests that he perceives this virtue as feminine in character

 

Popes versus Henry IV:

In 1075 Gregory VII asserted that the Imperial crown was at the sole discretion of the pope, that year a Lateran Council decreed the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen.  However Emperor Henry IV continued to appoint his own bishops, notably for Milan, & directly challenged Gregory by letter.  In 1076 Gregory excommunicated & deposed Henry.  German princes & aristocracy used religious reasons to continue rebellion (started in 1075), they seized royal holdings, claimed local lordships over peasants & property, built forts, and localized fiefdoms.  Henry IV needing time to marshal his forces against the rebellion & in 1077 went to Canossa (N. Italy) to apologize, standing barefoot & wearing a hair shirt.  Gregory lifted the excommunication, but the Great Saxon Revolt continued, the barons electing a rival king, Rudolf von Rheinfeld.

 

Popes versus Frederick II: * see EndNote<F>

Frederick, like Barbarossa, faced implacable papal opposition.  He was excommunicated by Gregory IX multiple times (1227, 1228 & 1239).  With Innocent IV, the new pope in 1243, he faced even greater hostility.  Like Pope Innocent III before him, this pope saw himself as the Vicar of Christ, with powers above earthly kings & freely intervened in secular politics.  He appointed Afonso III administrator of Portugal, protected Ottokar, son of the King of Bohemia & sided with King Henry III against both nobles & bishops of England.  In 1243 negotiations between Frederick & Pope were opened; the main point of contention was the return of Lombardy to Papal patrimony.  Innocent would not compromise on this issue.  Imperial agents encouraged plots against the pope & machinations stoked anti-papal feelings particularly in the Papal States,.  Fearing his position in Rome was untenable, Innocent IV withdrew in 1244 to Genoa & then to Lyon France.  He summoned a council to be held 1245 in Lyon with the express purpose of subjugating the Emperor.  Council & Pope declared Frederick excommunicated & deposed.  Innocent backed a rival Imperial claim & planned to assassinate Frederick!  Papal funds flowed to Imperial enemies in Germany; German bishops declared him deposed; in 1246 an Imperial army led by Conrad (son of Frederick) was defeated by the rival Emperor.  A papal backed invasion of Sicily was planned for 1450, although it ultimately failed.

 

Teutonic Knights in the Ostmark: * see EndNote<G>

crusader state formed by the knights of the Teutonic Order , participated in the 13th century Northern Crusades along the Baltic Sea; lands in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, parts of Germany, Poland, Russia & Sweden (see map, EndNotes) was conquered by the Orders, after which German colonization occurred to varying effect.  In 1327 the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Order as an autonomous branch; in 1346, the King of Denmark sold the Duchy of Estonia to the Order.   Following its defeat in the Battle of Grunwald (1410) the Order fell into decline, losing the Livonian branch; lands held in Prussia & Pomerania were split in 2 after the Peace of Thorn in 1466 & only the eastern section remained under Teutonic rule; the monastic state in the east was secularized (1525) in the Protestant Reformation as the Duchy of Prussia (Polish fief governed by the Hohenzollern).

 

Luther (his challenge):

The Reformation was sparked by Luther’s 95 Thesis, nailed to a church door in 1517.  Among other things Luther questioned why the Pope did not build St Peters with his own money & challenged the idea that indulgences forgave sin & granted salvation.  The 95 thesis was soon translated into German (1518) and by 1519 it was circulating widely across all of Europe.

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Cardinal Richelieu:

1585- 1642, French clergyman & statesman; A bishop in 1607, A cardinal in 1622, appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616 & King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624; worked to consolidate royal power & crush domestic factions; by restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state.  His main foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty & ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War.

 

Cardinal Mazarin:

1602-1661, Italian cardinal, diplomat & politician; served as de facto ruler of France, critical player in establishing the Westphalian principles which would guide European states' foreign policy & world order (establishing the nation state's sovereignty over its territory & domestic affairs, the legal equality among states); served Pope Urban VIII & then Cardinal Richelieu from 1640, succeeding him as first minister to Louis XIII in 1642 & then chief minister to Louis XIV until his death in 1661.  Presided over French victories in the Thirty Years' War, making France the dominant power & helping establish the Peace of Westphalia (1646–48).  He defeated the Fronde (broke out 1648,led by the nobles of the Parliament of Paris), evacuating Paris, retreating to Germany until a triumphal return in 1653.  Between 1657-61 he negotiated a series of major diplomatic victories: military alliance with England (1657), the League of the Rhine (1658), victory at the Battle of the Dunes (1658) over Spanish, French Fronde rebels & English royalists; Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) with Spain adding territory to French holdings; in 1660 the marriage between Louis XIV & Maria Theresa of Spain ending the wars between France & the Habsburgs

 

Cardinal Fleury:

1653-1743; French cardinal & chief minister of Louis XV who in 1726 appointed him first minister of state & had him made a cardinal; ruling with an iron hand, he continued of the codification of civil law (begun under Louis XIV) & began fiscal reforms that enabled French finances to recover from the costly wars of Louis XIV.  His major achievements were in foreign policy; formed a close working relationship with the British prime minister, Sir Robert Walpole, reducing tensions between Great Britain & Spain; while war broke out between these 2, it never became a European conflict.  After 1731 he worked to reduce British influence.  He avoided a major war with Austria & Russia in the War of the Polish Succession (1733–38).  His diplomacy secured closer relations between France and Austria while breaking British dominance in the affairs of the Continent.