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Sceptics*
the roots of Skepticism is found as early as Xenophanes (570-475 BC), Democritus (460- 370 BC) as well as several Sophists. Gorgias, argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it & that even if we could know it we could not communicate it. The Heraclitean philosopher Cratylus (mid-late 5th century BC) refused to discuss anything claiming communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing. Socrates (470-399 BC) also had sceptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.
The first Skeptic School was Pyrrhonism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis (360–270 BC). Its main aims were psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquillity (ataraxia). The 2nd school were the Academic Skeptics; its leading defenders were Arcesilaus (315–240 BC) who is considered its founder, and Carneades (217–128 BC). It’s most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy who denied that knowledge is possible but that some beliefs are more reasonable than others. The Pyrrhonians argued that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view. Nearly all the writings of the skeptics are lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus, a Pyrrhonian skeptic (living in the 2nd or 3rd third century AD) whose works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments.
Skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire; Augustine (354–430 AD) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 AD).
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Latin (as Stoic creations): *
The birth & evolution of Classical Latin
The word Latin is understood to mean "Classical Latin"; Latin textbooks almost exclusively teach Classical Latin. Classical Latin is defined by literary works written in Latin in the late Republic & early Empire.
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The first notable Early Latin Literature begins with Cato the Elder (234-149 BC) & his On Agriculture (160 BC); he wrote the first Latin history of Rome & was the first to put his political speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion. Although no Stoic (he loathed all things Greek) it is possible that without his writings Greek might have supplanted Latin as the literary language of Rome! Another notable Early Latin writer was Gaius Lucilius (180-103 BC), an equestrian he was a member of the Scipionic Circle & wrote 30 books of Satires. He used an easy, conversational tone referencing books, food, friends & current events.
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The Golden Age of Latin literature (the period from 81 BC to 17 AD), begins with Cicero (106–43 BC). He was an orator, philosopher & essayist & is considered the master of Latin prose. His surviving work (letters, rhetorical treatises, philosophical works & orations exceeds all other Latin authors, while the variety of genre & subject matter, his unsurpassed stylistic excellence make him a milestone. Julius Caesar (103–44 BC) was one of the outstanding historians of this age. His commentaries on the Gallic & civil wars are written in a straightforward style justifying his military actions; he wrote descriptions of people & their motives. The birth of lyric poetry in Latin also occurred during this period. Noteworthy here are the short love lyrics of Catullus (84–54 BC) famous for their emotional intensity. Notable also was Lucretius (97-54 BC) who expounded on the Epicurean philosophy in a long poem, De rerum natura.
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The most learned writer of this age was Varro (116–27 BC), a highly influential grammarian. He wrote about a variety of subjects, from religion to poetry. Only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language survived in complete form.
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Augustus took personal interest in the literature of his age (27 BC to AD 14); this Augustan Age. saw Virgil (70–19 BC),publish his pastoral Eclogues, the Georgics, & the Aeneid, considered the greatest work of Latin literature. His friend Horace (65–8 BC), known for lyric poetry and satires wrote Epodes, Odes, Satires, and Epistles. The perfection of his content, form & style has charmed readers for hundreds of years.
After Virgil, Horace (65–8 BC) was a satirist & Rome's leading poet. His Art of Poetry influenced later poetic theories; it stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and used them.
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The Latin elegy reached its peak with Ovid (43 BC-18 AD). Most of his poetry is concerned with love; his greatest work, the Metamorphoses weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story. He was a witty writer who excelled in creating lively, passionate characters.
Livy (64 BC-12 AD), a Roman historian, produced a history of the Roman people are a major source of information on Rome.
Stoicism comes to Rome
In 155 BC a mission from Athens arrived in Rome; it consisted of the Skeptic Carneades, the Peripatetic Critolaus (a follower of a school based on Aristotle) & the Stoic Diogenes of Babylon. They delivered their praise & blame rhetoric first in numerous private assemblies, then in the Senate. They were successful in their mission (reducing a large fine) & their embassy excited great interest at Rome, not only with Roman youth, but also amongst the most illustrious men in the state. This included as Scipio Africanus, Laelius, Furius, and others, who came to listen to their discourses. Diogenes pleased his audience chiefly by his sober and temperate mode of speaking. Cicero went so far as to call Diogenes "a great and important Stoic" (in his De Officiis). Carneades attracted notice on account of his eloquent speeches on philosophical subjects. Cato the Elder heard his oration commending the virtue of Roman justice. Cato was also present the next day when Carneades (always the Skeptic) refuted his first day’s oration & attempted to prove that justice was problematic & not equivalent to virtue, but rather a compact deemed necessary for the maintenance of order in society. This had a big negative impact on the conservative Cato; in the Senate he moved to send the philosopher home to prevent the exposure of Roman youth to the clear threat his philosophy presented!
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The main Stoic school during the late Republic & early Imperial age was the Middle Stoa (active from the 2nd & early 1st centuries BC). It was established by Panaetius (185-109 BC) who had been a pupil of Diogenes. His main disciple was Poseidonius (135-51 BC).
Panaetius became friends with Scipio & accompanied him on a Roman embassy to the principal monarchs & states of the Hellenistic east (139-138 BC). Cicero mentions the Circle of Scipio, a group of philosophers (including Panaetius), poets & politicians patronized by Scipio. Together they would discuss Greek culture, literature & humanism. He returned with Scipio to Rome, where he did much to introduce Stoic doctrines and Greek philosophy. He organized a Stoic school in the city & had a number of distinguished Roman patricians as pupils, amongst them Q. Scaevola the augur and Q. Aelius Tubero the Stoic. He was highly regarded by Cicero, who used him as a model for his own work, De Officiis (44 BC) which follows the Panaetius fairly closely in presenting the Stoic system. After the death of Scipio in spring 129 BC, Panaetius lived in both Rome & Athens, where he succeeded Antipater of Tarsus as head of the Stoic school.
Poseidonius taught Cicero at his school at Rhodes and later went to Rome and remained there for a time with Cicero. it was Poseidonius that served as a model for the Cicero’s De officiis (44 BC). Like his teacher, Poseidonius (135-51 BC) had connections with the Roman ruling class. It may have been because of the considerable time that Panaetius & Poseidonius lived in Rome that the Stoa there came to emphasise the moral and religious themes within the Stoic doctrine. It was chiefly these 2 Greeks who were responsible for the widespread popularity of Stoicism in Rome; their focus on moral philosophy & natural science appealed to the intensely practical Romans.
Stoics who were men of literature
Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire. There was considerable cross-pollination between the men of power, Latin writers & Greek philosophers & schools. As referenced already Panaetius along with Posidonius had wide influence in Rome, especially with both Scipio & Cicero Diodotus (120-59 BC) was a Greek Stoic philosopher who lived most of his life in Rome, in Cicero's house; he instructed Cicero in Stoic philosophy & Logic. Cato the Younger (95-46 BC) although no literary scion, was a conservative Roman senator, a noted orator and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. The influence of the Stoics was not limited to the patricians either. It is possible that Augustus was a Stoic or at least sympathetic. Suetonius claims that Augustus was the author of numerous writings including a work titled “Exhortations to Philosophy” as well as “Reply to Brutus on Cato” (both Cato & Brutus were Stoics). Suetonius also says Augustus called the attention of the public via proclamations, among other things a speech by Publius Rutilius Rufus (a Stoic), titled “On the Height of Buildings”. He states that Augustus was very interested in studying Greek literature & rhetoric, although he never mastered the language. He had 2 Stoic tutors. Athenodorus Cananites (a student of Posidonius of Rhodes), was the first. His second Stoic tutor was Arius Didymus of Alexandria. Arius was the author of an important summary of early Stoic teachings.
Not surprisingly, several notable writers during the Augustan Age were dedicated Stoics or had Stoic sympathies. Ovid was a Pythagorean-inspired Stoic. Horace also seems to have been touched by the Stoics. He received some formal education in Athens, as a student at in The Academy (the school founded by Plato). The Academy was dominated by Epicureans and Stoics whose theories practises made a deep impression on him. His work Epistles demonstrates a leaning towards stoic theory. Another work, The Satires, also feature Stoic, Peripatetic and Platonic Dialogue elements.