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Acropolis (Pericles): *
Pre-classical: the Acropolis of Athens has been home to many ancient structures. In the Greek Dark Ages, a megaron stood at its summit & it had Mycenaean circuit walls & other structures. In the Archaic period: 7th & 6th centuries BC, there were various building projects. Peisistratos built an entry gate (Propylaea) & the 9 gate wall which surrounded the spring, the Clepsydra. Between 570-50 he built the Athena Polias temple (main deity of Athens), Doric limestone building, called the "hundred–footed" or Ur-Parthenon, standing where the Parthenon now stands. Between 529-20 BC he also built by the Old Temple of Athena, destroyed in 480 BC, possibly reconstructed (454 BC) as the treasury of the Delian League. Around 500 BC the hundred footed temple was dismantled to make place for a new grander "Older Parthenon". Finance & war with Persia meant it was still unfinished when the Persians sacked the city in 480, destroying most of the Acropolis. The Periclean building program: After victory over Persia on land & sea at Eurymedon (468 BC), Cimon & Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of the S & N walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples were rebuilt by order of Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens (460–430 BC). The main sculptor was Phidias, the architects were Ictinus & Callicrates. In 437 BC, Mnesicles started a new Propylaea building on the older structure; near completion in 432 BC it included paintings by Polygnotus. At the same time building started on the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike (Pentelic marble with tetrastyle porches); interrupted by the Peloponnesian War, work finished during Peace of Nicias (421-09 BC). Between 421-06 BC the complex & elegant Erechtheion was built; unusually it had 2 porches. Behind the Propylaea stood the gigantic bronze Athena Promachos statue ("Athena who fights in the front line"), built 450-48 BC by Phidias, its bases 5 feet high, total height 30 feet; sailors rounding Cape Sounion could see reflections of the gilt tipped lance she held. The supreme architectural & sculptural achievement of the age was the Parthenon, built 447-38 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the peak of its power.
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Ommaiyads: *
A secular administration, the Umayyad gave autonomy to the Christian & Jewish populations, who had their own judiciary system & religious heads. They did pay a poll tax to the central state. This was according to the wishes of Muhammad had stated explicitly that Abrahamic religious groups be allowed religious freedom, provided that they paid the poll taxation. Umar (aka Omar) a senior companion of Muhammad, Caliph 634-44, had started a programme of welfare for the poor (both Muslim & non-Muslim), financed by the Zakat tax levied only on Muslims. This was continued under the Umayyad. At the time, their taxation & administrative practice were resented by some Muslims.
In the Empire Christians & Jews were still a majority at this time & the wife of the first Caliph was a Christian. Although the Umayyad frequently fought the Byzantines, in Syria the 2 religions coexisted without problems. Indeed prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. This practise was part of a broader policy of religious assimilation necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria.
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Moorish architecture: *
Most of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, rooms opening on to a central court; each new ruler added new quadrangle all designed on the same principle & connected to each other by small rooms & passages. Column arcades, fountains with running water & reflecting pools added to the aesthetic & functional complexity. In every case, the exterior was left plain and austere. Blue, red, and golden yellow were the colours chiefly employed on the interiors. The decoration consists for the upper part of the walls, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions, mostly poems by Ibn Zamrak, that are manipulated into geometrical patterns with vegetal background set onto an arabesque setting. Much of this ornament is carved stucco (plaster) not stone. Tile mosaics with complicated mathematical patterns are used as panelling for the lower part. Similar designs are displayed on wooden ceilings. Stalactite or muqarnas vaults are the main elements for the ceilings done in stucco. The court of the Lions is famous for this.
see illustration far right
horseshoe arch entry to the Alhambra the Alcazaba (fortress)s, a Moorish architectural innovation allowing a greater height than the semi-circular arch used by the Greeks & Romans. From the bottom of the reddish arch, the horseshoe arch widens before narrowing to form the arch. Resembling a prayer niche in a mosque, it symbolizes a door to Mecca or paradise.
see illustration to the left
round columns and horseshoe arches surrounding the courtyard of the Lions
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stalactites: *
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ceiling stalactites Alhambra High-resolution detail from the Alhambra
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Potsdam: *
The south facing garden façade. Frederick the Great ignored his architect's advice to place the piano nobile upon a low ground floor. As a result, the palace failed to take maximum advantage of its location. Its windows are devoid of views, and seen from its lower terraces it appears to be more of an orangery than a palace
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Byzantium 900 AD: *
In the 9th & 10th centuries the Empire's military situation improved allowing increased in patronage of art & architecture. New churches were commissioned, the "cross-in-square" architectural form & the Middle Byzantine church decorative scheme became standard. There was a revival of interest in the depiction of subjects from classical mythology & in the use of a "classical" style to depict religious & particularly Old Testament subjects, the Paris Psalter being a good example. It is large & extravagantly illustrated, famous for its apparent classicism in figural style, painting, technique & coloration. This includes personifications in the compositions derived from Greco-Roman wall painting. It exhibits confident classicism & illusionism of the miniatures, yet was the product of the 10th century, thereby extending the persistence of classical art in Byzantium into the Middle Ages. The Macedonian period also saw a revival of the late antique technique of ivory carving. Many ornate ivory triptychs and diptychs survive, such as the Harbaville Triptych.
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Empire modes of the north (Egypt): *
From the 19th Dynasty (1213-1077) onward (Pharaoh Merneptah) the capital was Memphis, the northern part of kingdom near the Nile delta. The temples benefitted from Egypt’s wealth as more assets were channelled into these centres. They grew larger & more elaborate. Higher-ranking priestly roles became permanent rather than rotating, they controlled a large portion of Egypt's wealth. As the influence of temples expanded, religious celebrations once fully public were absorbed into the temples' increasingly important private festival rituals. The most important god of the time was Amun, whose main cult centre, the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnack, Thebes. His temple eventually became the largest of all temples & the priests of Amun wielded great political influence. Many temples were now built entirely of stone, their general plan became fixed, with the sanctuary, halls, courtyards, and pylon gateways oriented along the path used for festival processions. The New Kingdom pharaohs abandoned building pyramids as funerary monuments. Instead they placed their tombs a great distance from their mortuary temples (e.g. Valley of the Kings). Without pyramids to build around, mortuary temples began using the same plan as those dedicated to the gods.
Mid way thru the New Kingdom, Akhenaten promoted the god Aten & monotheism but his attempts to impose this failed. During his reign the traditional temples were neglected while new Aten temples (differing in design & construction) were erected. But Akhenaten's revolution was reversed soon after his death, with the traditional cults reinstated and the new temples dismantled. Later pharaohs dedicated still more resources to the temples, particularly Ramesses II (19th dynasty), the most prolific monument-builder in Egyptian history. As the wealth of the priesthoods continued to grow, so did their religious influence. Local temple oracles (controlled by the priests) became popular for decisions making while Pharaonic power waned. In the 11th century BC a military leader, Herihor, made himself High Priest of Amun & the de facto ruler of Upper Egypt. This began the political fragmentation of the Third Intermediate Period (1070–664 BC). As the New Kingdom crumbled, the building of mortuary temples ceased and was never revived.
A number of colossi statues of Ramses have been found, most famously at the The Ramesseum, a memorial temple for the Pharaoh. Only fragments of the base & torso remain of the enthroned pharaoh, 62 feethigh, weighing over 1000 tons. This is the largest remaining colossal statue in the world. Fragments of 4 granite Colossi of Ramses were found in Tanis (northern Egypt). Estimated height is 69 to 92 feet (21 to 28 meters).
see above
Ramesses colossi at Memphis. A large number of sculptures representing Ramesses the Great have been found here. One of the largest is a limestone sculpture measuring 10 metres. Displayed on its back as the feet & base are broken off. Originally, the statue was one of a pair. The second one was found by Caviglia in 1820.
see above
Ramses was not he only New Kingdom pharaoh to order colossi in Luxor. The Colossi of Memnon are 2 massive stone statues of the Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who reigned in Egypt during the Dynasty XVIII
Temples too increased in size. The New Kingdom grew a relatively modest temple at Karnak, into a huge state religious centre. Major expansion of this temple complex took place during the 18th dynasty when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt. New barque shrines, gateways, enclosure walls, the 4th & 5th pylons, obelisks, courtyards, a sacred lake. During the reign of Thutmose III, the main temple itself was extended by 50%. After a brief interruption during the Amarna Period construction resumed at Karnak under Tutankhamun & Horemheb. The 9th pylon was erected along the southern axis using material taken from the demolished Akhetaten temple. Construction of the Hypostyle Hall Precinct of Amun-Re, began in the 18th dynasty, though most work was done under Seti I and Ramesses II of the 19th dynasty. This feature is huge, with an area of 50,000 sq feet, 134 massive columns 122 of which are 10 meters tall, and the other 12 are 21 meters tall with a diameter of over 3 meters. The architraves on top of these columns are estimated to weigh 70 tons. These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers. see illustration below
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Justinian I contemporary of Spanish Venetian Baroque of Charles V Philip II: *
Justinian I (482-565 AD) sought to revive Imperial greatness & reconquer the lost western Roman Empire. He lived during the Summer phase of the Magian Culture.
and see Chapter II, page 81
Spanish Baroque (1600-1700). Up to the Italian Renaissance Spain was bereft of great artists. Like much of norther Europe the new ideas only came later. Ferdinand & Isabella (from 1479) links between Valencia, Seville & Florence opened Spain to the new movement. Patronage from Spain's monarchs & aristocracy, and the Spanish rule of Naples established further connections between Italy & Spain. Spanish artists learned from Italy but developed their own unique style. Sponsored by an uncompromising Catholic Church & devout Hapsburg rulers, these painters adopted the severe & noble style of Counter-Reformation art, combining line & colour as well as the graphic & pictorial, involved acute sense of observation & truthfulness, moving (together with the Dutch Baroque masters) towards naturalistic realism. Very early Luis de Morales (1512-86) produced works foreshadowing Counter-Reformation ideals, aspects of mysticism mixed with religion. He was a leading exponent of Spanish mannerist painting, his distinctly Spanish style was reminiscent of medieval art. He was influenced by the Italians Michelangelo & Raphael. The greatest Baroque Spanish painter was El Greco, who lived in Italy 1568-77 & who studied the great Italian masters (Titian, Tintoretto & Michelangelo). He fell out of favour in Italy; returning to Spain he found a home in Toledo. He was influential in creating a style based on impressions & emotion, featuring elongated fingers, vibrant colour & brushwork. Second only to El Greco was Velázquez (1599-1660). He was influenced by the Venetian school. The Venetian school is famous for its primacy of colour over line. It begins with the Bellini brothers (1429-1516), includes later painters such as Titian (1489–1576) & Tintoretto (1518–1594), while Veronese (1528–1588) closes the period. It had great influence on later painting, with its sensual, poetic, and pleasure-seeking colour. Through the presence of Titian in the coast of Charles V & Spain, the Venetian style influenced Spanish Baroque Art & in particular that of Velázquez.
Charles V (1500-58), King of Spain & Holy Roman Emperor dominated Europe for nearly half a century. and see Chapter IV, page 148
His son Philip II (1527-98) ruled Spain as well as a massive overseas Empire. Both men ruled Spain when she dominated Europe; both were key players in the Counter Reformation, in the struggle against the Protestant north. and see Chapter I, page 4, Chapter III, page 109 and Chapter IV, page 148
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<I>
Procopius contemporary with early Baroque of Madrid, Vienna, Rome: *
Procopius (500-554 AD) prominent Byzantine Greek scholar from Palestine; accompanied the Byzantine general Belisarius in the wars of Emperor Justinian. He was the principal Byzantine historian of the 6th century, writing The Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated (& infamous) Secret History. Seen as the last major historian of the ancient Western world. Spengler’s reference to his palaces is an allusion to the book The Buildings of Justinian, probably a draft, written in the 550s. It is a panegyric on Justinian's building activity in the empire. Justinian is presented as an idealised Christian emperor building churches for the glory of God, defences for the safety of his subjects and who was especially concerned about the water supply.
early secular Baroque: Madrid
El Escorial (The Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial), historical residence of the Spanish royalty, in San Lorenzo de El Escorial (28 miles NW of Madrid); multiple functions: monastery, basilica, royal palace, pantheon, library, museum, university, school & hospital. Two complexes: the royal monastery & a royal hunting lodge & monastic retreat. In the 16th & 17th centuries they were an architectural manifestation of the integration of the Spanish crown & predominance of the Catholic religion in Spain. Philip II of Spain, (1556–1598) spent much of his time & money trying to reverse the Protestant Reformation. The same impulse which animated these acts led to the building of El Escorial.
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Philip engaged the Spanish architect, Juan Bautista de Toledo as his designer in 1559. Bautista had spent most of his career in Rome (working St. Peter's) and Naples (serving as the king's viceroy). The 2 men collaborated in the design; Philip told Toledo to build: "simplicity in the construction, severity in the whole, nobility without arrogance, majesty without ostentation.". It commemorates Battle of St. Quentin, Spain’s victory over Henry II (king of France in 1557); it would serve as a necropolis for his parents (Charles I & Isabella of Portugal), himself & descendants. It would also be a centre for studies in aid of the Counter-Reformation cause. Work started in 1563; on Bautista’s death (1567) work passed to Juan de Herrera, who completed it 1584. Herrera enlarged the plan, building the monumental western façade, the central Basilica & the pavilion of the Court of the Evangelists. Stylistically he changed the image of the façades & introduced his personal sober style in accordance to the wishes of the King. This style became known as Herrerian, and is the 3rd & final phase of Spanish Baroque architecture: the progressive purification of ornament, away from the initial plateresque towards classical purism of the final half of the 16th century and total decorative nudity. The floor plan is a gridiron, in honour of St. Lawrence (3rd century AD, was martyred by being roasted to death on a grill) whose feast day is 10 August, the same date as the Battle of St. Quentin. Built from locally quarried gray granite, square & sparsely ornamented, its external appearance is austere, forbidding much like a fortress. It is a gigantic quadrangle (224m x 153m) enclosing a series of intersecting passageways, courtyards & chambers. Each of the 4 corners has a square tower surmounted by a spire, and, at the centre (taller than the rest) rise the pointed belfries & round dome of the basilica.
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left below : Herrerian façade of the Monastery of El Escorial. right below: El Escorial. View from the north-west
early secular Baroque: Rome
Palazzo Barberini, Rome, early Baroque palace; site owned by the Sforza; sold in 1625 to Pope Urban VIII, of the Barberini family. Maderno, a Renaissance architect who worked on St Peters, was the first of 3 builders. His initial designs (1627) were Renaissance in style but modified to combine an urban seat of princely power with a garden front, a suburban villa with a semi-enclosed garden. On his death in 1629 Bernini was awarded the project; he worked with Maderno’s nephew Francesco Borromini. The work was completed in 1633.
The palazzo is set around a forecourt, the 2 symmetrical wings extend forward from the main block to create a cour d'honneur or 3 sided court. The main facade presents 3 tiers of great arch-headed windows (like glazed arcades, a Venetian formula). Notable as well, on the top floor, Borromini's windows are set in a false perspective suggesting extra depth. The interior is dominated by Bernini's grand 2 storey hall backed by an oval salone, with an extended wing dominating the piazza (which lies on a lower level). Flanking the hall are 2 sets of stairs, a large squared staircase by Bernini & a smaller famous helical oval staircase by Borromini, both lead to the piano nobile. Many of these features were copied & repeated across Europe.
below left floor plan facade showing 2 wings with 3 sided court the Borromini oval staircase
early secular Baroque: Vienna
Winter Palace of Prince Eugene aka the City Palace, Vienna, is high-Baroque, the winter residence of Prince Eugene of Savoy, designed and constructed by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach (from 1695 to 1700) & later by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (from 1702-24). Work began in 1697 & by 1698 painters were already working on the ceiling frescoes. The Palace has a 12-bay flat Baroque façade with 3 portals, each given double corbels that support a balcony and decorated balustrade. In place of standard columns or pillars, von Erlach designed bas-reliefs depicting military scenes from ancient mythology (Hercules fighting the giant Antaeus, and Aeneas saving his father Anchises). These reflect Prince Eugene's glorious military accomplishments. Above each portal are tall windows of the piano nobile, made distinct from the other windows by their reversed segmented pediments with insert cartouches. The façade is broken up by colossal pilasters with flat composite capitals that extend the full height of the building to the cornice.
