<A>
Minoan art (Crete): *
Minoan metal work also includes eating & drinking utensils; we find cup-type forms of precious metals, as well as bronze vessels of great diversity (cauldrons, pans, hydrias, bowls, pitchers, basins, cups, ladles & lamps); this metal vessel tradition influenced Mycenaean culture on mainland Greece; the function of the cup & bowl types was probably for drinking, hydrias & pitchers for pouring liquids, cauldrons & pans for food preparation. Scholars suggest that metal vessels played an important role in ritual drinking ceremonies and communal feasting; the use of the valuable bronze & precious metal vessels by elites signified high status, power & superiority over lower-status participants who used ceramic vessels.
Vapheio Cups- 17-16th centuries BC
pair of golden cups decorated with reliefs featuring bulls was found at Vapheio, Laconia, Greece, famous for its tholos tomb. Both are 1 handled cups with flaring straight side. The first cup depicting a peaceful capturing of a bull: a man ties a rope around its leg while the bull was mating; also depicts three grazing bulls. The second cup displays a more violent scene, with a bull caught in a net while another attacks 2 hunters. The cups appear to be imported from Crete where bulls were considered to be sacred. The naturalistic composition is added via repoussé, a technique in which the relief is made by hammering the reverse side of the metal. The 2 cups were most likely made by same craftsman although the first one is of better quality and are the most perfect works of Mycenaean-Minoan art.
<B>
Egypt (post-Hyksos): *
End of the second Intermediate Period
During this period (1650-1550) Egypt was ruled by the Hyksos, from Avaris. They infiltrated from the NE & their power was concentrated in the north; they never controlled all of Egypt. There were 6 Hyksos kings. The 17th Dynasty (1585-50 BC) based in Thebes, liberated Egypt from Hyksos rule. The final 2 kings of the 17th Dynasty completed the expulsion of the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, restored Theban rule over all Egypt & reasserted Egyptian power in formerly subject territories Nubia & the S. Levant.
The New Kingdom (1550-1077 BC) 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties
The New Kingdom begins with the 18th Dynasty. As a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, attaining its greatest territorial extent, expanding far south (Nubia) & holding territories in the Near East (Syria). This Dynasty was a time of wealth & power; some of the most important pharaohs ruled. Hatshepsu (lived 1507-1458 BC), an unusual female pharaoh, ruled 20 years, using political skill & propaganda; she extended trade south (Somalia) & north (Mediterranean). Her successor Thutmose III (1479-25 BC) expanded Egypt's army & used it effectively against Asiatic peoples. Amenhotep III (ruled 1386-49 BC) built extensively at the temple of Karnak (including Luxor Temple). Especially famous was Amenhotep IV (ruled 1353-36 BC) or Akhenaten. He introduced monotheism with the exclusive worship of the Aten; he built a new capital at Amarna. The art of his reign diverged significantly from earlier Egyptian art. Under a series of successors (to include Tutankhamun) the worship of the old gods was revived & the art of Akhenaten's reign was defaced. The founder of the 19th dynasty was Ramesses I (1295-94); his son continued to restore Egyptian power & created the temple complex at Abydos. Under Rameses II (1279-13 BC) Egypt's power peaked. He built many temples, including the Abu Simbel temples (on Nubian border) & tombs in the Valley of the Kings. He worked to recover territories in the Levant but at Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, he led his army into an ambush set by the Hittites. His immediate successors continued the military campaigns, but trouble was brewing in the court & the dynasty ended on a bad note. The throne was disputed, a burst of anarchy ensued & Bay, a West Asian commoner who as vizier held undue power in the final reigns of the dynasty, was executed in 1192. The greatest pharaoh of the 20th Dynasty was Ramesses III (ruled 1186-55 BC). He faced an invasion by the Sea People in 1178, whom he defeated on land & at sea and expelled. At the same time he had to defend the Delta from invading Libyans from the west. These wars exhausted Egypt's treasury, contributing to the gradual decline of her Asian Empire. Crop failures led to economic problems & in 1157 a strike among the elite tomb builders & artisans at the Valley of the Kings took place. Following Ramesses death his sons bickered about power. Egypt faced economic problems as droughts hurt agricultural production. In the face of famine, civil unrest & official corruption the pharaohs grew weak. In the south the Theban High Priests of Amun became effective rulers of Upper Egypt; in the north, the future pharaoh, Smendes, controlled Lower Egypt.
The Third Intermediate Period
Third Intermediate Period dates from 1070 with the 21st dynasty, a time of decline & political instability. Egypt was divided between southern & norther sections & faced conquest and rule by foreigners.
<C>
Forum of Nerva: *
started by Emperor Domitian before 85 AD, finished by Nerva in 97 AD
see detail of entablature below and reconstruction right
<D>
Otto I: *
He began his rule by suppressing a civil war by both his brother & son. Decisive victory at the Battle of Lechfeld (955) over Magyars ended Hungarian invasions & secured his hold on Germany. By 961 he conquered the Kingdom of Italy & extended his kingdom's borders to the north, east & south. This led to conflict with Byzantine holdings in Italy but eventually both sides were reconciled. Confirmed Donation of Pepin (754) & as the natural successor to Charlemagne, crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII in 962. In the late 940s, he began to use the Church as a tool for royal dominance, associated himself with the Church as its protector & spoke of "divine right" to rule. By strengthening church authorities (bishops and abbots) at the expense of the secular nobility (many of whom Otto saw as threats) he increased royal power. He strengthened royal authority by personally appointing & investing clerics with the symbols of their office, both spiritual & secular (as his vassals). Clerical election was a formality; he filled the church with his own family & close loyal chancery clerks. His brother Bruno (Chancellor) became Archbishop of Cologne & Duke of Lorraine, his bastard became Archbishop William of Mainz and courtiers loyal to him routinely received church offices as rewards for service. He endowed them with gifts, land & royal prerogatives (power to levy taxes, to maintain an army). As secular lords had no jurisdiction over Church lands, this raised the clerics above the Dukes. Otto also made tithing mandatory for all inhabitants of Germany. The nobility also saw the value of church offices. Since wealth & land was associated with bishops or abbots, the sale of church offices (simony) was a source of income for the aristocracy, as they themselves owned the lands & by charity, allowed the building of churches.
<E>
Henry VI: *
In 1186 Henry had the opportunity of adding the Sicilian crown to the Empire when he & Constance (sole heir of King William of Sicily) were married. While his father was on Crusade, he faced Welf resistance in Germany & was campaigning in Saxony in 1189 when William died. A rival claimant for the throne arose (Tancred, backed by Richard the Lion-hearted). Henry made peace with the Welf faction & moved south. At Rome in 1191 he & Constance received the Imperial crowns from a complaint pope. Aiming to take Sicily he besieged Naples. An epidemic ravaged his army & he faced stiff resistance at sea. In Germany Welf resistance began yet again & the siege was abandoned. He returned to Germany while Constance stayed in Salerno. He concluded a peace with the Welf leader Henry the Lion. Meanwhile Constance had been captured by Tancred. The pope intervened & had her released, but in the process recognized Tancred as king of Sicily. In Germany Henry’s fortune’s waned. In 1192 he worked to appoint his candidate to the Bishop of Lüttich against Albert of Louvain. Albert had received papal backing but was eventually assassinated, an act which angered the pope. Henry faced a growing tide of resistance: the Welfs, the king of England, Philip of France, assorted German princes & now Rome.
In 1193 Henry’s luck changed when the king of England, Richard became his prisoner. Taking revenge for Richard’s support of Tancred & the Welfs he demanded a huge ransom of 150,000 silver marks. He ignored papal bluster & an excommunication (for imprisoning a crusader). In 1194 the ransom was paid, Richard was released. In 1194, Tancred died, his heir a young boy. Henry, fortified by the huge ransom, set out for Italy. Facing minimal resistance he reached Palermo in 1194 & was crowned king. He appointed Constance as Sicilian queen regnant & placed loyal henchmen in key important positons in Sicily & S. Italy. He was the most powerful monarch in the Mediterranean & Europe, his Imperial income without parallel. However negotiations with the pope to approve a unified Empire remained deadlocked & his proclaimed universal rule ran foul of the Byzantine Empire, who proceeded to forge alliances with the crowns of Armenia & Cyprus. He now began to conspire to unite East & West under Hohenstaufen rule. Under the pretext of funding a crusade his envoys collected money from Byzantine princes. The limits to Imperial power was exposed when Venice annihilated his Pisan navy. Henry arranged a peace treaty & confirmed Venetian autonomy.
Back in Germany in 1195 Henry prepared for a crusade & planned for the succession of his son Fredrick II. He proposed reforms to the Empire (hereditary monarchy, surrendering claims to deceased clerical offices) & at the Diet of Würzburg (1196) a majority of the princes voted for his proposals. However in October, at Erfurt, a majority rejected his plans. Negotiations with the pope were broken off as well. His only success was his son’s election as King of Germany (1196). Back in Sicily his tyranny provoked resistance to include Constance, a revolt broke & he had to sign a peace treaty; he died soon after.
<F>
Frederick II:*
Minority
Elected 1196 King of the Germans as a baby at Frankfurt am Main; following his father’s death (1197) both his brother Philip of Swabia & Otto of Brunswick disputed his rights. During most of his minority he lived in Sicily with his mother, queen of Sicily. Here during his long minority his rights were usurped by local barons & adventures. In 1209 with papal support, Otto was crowned emperor as champion of the German nobility who feared Frederick. However he invaded Italy in 1209 & papal support shifted to Frederick who agreed to the separation of the crown of Sicily from the German crown; with Vatican manipulation he was now elected King of Germany in absentia in 1211 & Otto was duly excommunicated. Crowned in 1212 his authority remained tenuous as Otto continued to hold royal & imperial powers despite excommunication. However Otto suffered defeat at the hands of Philip of France (1214) & his death in 1218 opened the door for Frederick. He was crowned King of Germany in 1215 with support from Innocent III but had to wait until 1220 to receive the Imperial crown in Rome.
Italy (part i)
Frederick spent little time in Germany. In 1218, he invaded Lorraine burning Nancy & capturing its Duke, as an ally of King Philip II of France and Odo III, Duke of Burgundy, helping to end the War of Succession in Champagne. After his coronation in 1220, he was either in Sicily or on Crusade until 1236, when he made a final journey to Germany, returning to Italy in 1237. In Germany his son Conrad represented Imperial interests. In Sicily, he continued the legal reforms started by his father & grandfather, the result being a collection of laws far in advance of the age. It made Sicily an absolutes monarchy & set a precedent for written law.
King of Jerusalem
When elected King of the Romans, he promised to go on crusade. He was however a reluctant Crusader & did not participate in the on the 5th crusade (1217). Despite sending forces he never committed; ultimately the crusade failed & Frederick was blamed. In 1225 he summoned a Diet, to prepare for a crusade, crush heresy & restore Imperial power in norther Italy. The latter aim led to a defensive alliance in N Italy (the Lombard League), potently dangerous for Frederick. With the cancellation of the diet relations were normalized. Instability in the Empire delayed his promised departure for crusade. In 1225 he married Yolande of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem; he immediately dispossessed the current king of Jerusalem & all rights were transferred to the emperor. In 1227 he sailed for the Holy Land but inexplicably (claiming plague) he returned to Italy. Pope Gregory IX excommunicated him for failing to honor his crusading pledge. Only In 1229 did he set foot in the Holy Land. Excommunicated he was not technically able to crusade. Since his own forces were small & he was denied help by local prices & orders, he negotiated a settlement with the sultan. This treaty (1229), returned Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem & a small coastal strip to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. However all the local crusaders (including the Templars & Hospitallers) condemned the treaty as a political ploy. Frederick was crowned King of Jerusalem. The Church’s reaction was uniformly hostile: the city was placed under interdict. Fredericks attempt to rule were resisted by the local barons. When he left Jerusalem in 1229 the city was politically polarized between local powers & the Imperil party. And in 1244 Jerusalem itself was lost to a new Muslim offensive. While his treaty gained him kudos in Europe, the Church remained offended & though his excommunication was lifted this did not signal a reapproachment.
Italy (part ii)
Frederick returned to Italy in 1229, he initially had to quell local magnates. He made some friendly overtures to the Church & respected the Papal States. In Germany mattes were more serious. His son Henry VII had angered the princes & dukes. They had reacted and forced Henry to capitulate; most of the Imperial right were surrendered. In 1232 Frederick was forced to cede these privileges. In Italy the situation also deteriorated. In Lombardy, despite papal help, he failed to restore Imperial pretentions (1233). In Germany Henry revolted against his directives ad eventually Fredrick had him imprisoned (1235). That same year the Hohenstaufen & the Guelphs were reconciled, an act which brought some stability. With Germany secure & his son in prison Frederick turned south to Lombardy. Bringing an army he began a campaign to restore Imperial authority in N Italy (1237). Rome tried to negotiate a settlement but in the end Frederick opted for conquest. He enjoyed some success & in 1239 was (again) excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX. Matters remained inconclusive, Italian city states playing Frederick off against the pope. In other cases Imperial forces looted & burned cities, often pillaging Papal lands. Imperial-papal relations were at an all time low 1241-42.
The Mongols
In 1241-42, the Golden Horde decisively defeated the armies of Hungary & Poland and devastated their countryside. The king of Hungary appealed to Frederick for aid, but Frederick refused to commit to a major military expedition. He did work to unity his magnates & warned fellow European crowns. Aware of the danger the Mongols posed, he tried to use it as leverage over the Papacy, framing himself protector of Christendom. He called a levy throughout Germany but mid 1241 dispersed his army. The Mongols were busy raiding Hungary attempting to smash all Hungarian resistance. Frederick ordered his vassals to strengthen their defences & kept appraised of Mongol activity. His forces were to avoid engaging the Mongols in field battles, hoard all food stocks in every fortress and stronghold, and arm all possible levies as well as the general populace. Mongol probing attacks did occur but none were successful. They were not successful in siege warfare, & in general the Western knights held their own. A full-scale invasion never occurred. After taking Hungary, the Mongols withdrew in 1242.
Italy (part iii)
innocent IV was elected in 1243, relations with the Emperor were up & down but mostly down. Treaties & promises were made & broken. Frederick was named Anti-Christ by prominent clerics. Things became very ugly. Innocent backed a rival for the imperial crown & plotted to kill Frederick and his son. This failed as did papal attempts to invade Sicily. Innocent sent money to Germany to cut Frederick's power base here; the archbishops of Cologne & Mainz declared him deposed. A new king was chosen & supported with papal funds defeated Conrad (Fredericks son) in 1246. Meanwhile in S. Germany Frederick strengthened his hands. In 1247 the Emperor secured submission of various local Italian magnate, called a diet and gained stability. Papal military strategies failed to materialize while Imperial military might waxed. In 1247 Parma was placed under siege. The next year however Imperial forces were unexpectedly routed. This defeat shattered the momentum Frederick had been gaining & his on Enzo was captured. For the next 2 years battles raged, were won &lost, all largely inconclusive. Neither Imperial or Papal sides could force final victory or gain a final settlement. In 1250 Frederick died in S. Italy. On his death his preeminent position in Europe was challenged but not lost. He left Conrad the Imperial and Sicilian crowns.
​
<G>
Viking-Norman conquers: *
The map on the left shows the general thrusts of the Vikings: seaborne to the west into the N Atlantic, seaborne central across the N Sea into England, Scotland & France, then east through the Mediterranean, and to the east across the plains of Russia south to Constantinople. The map on the right shows the details of the Viking European migration: areas of Scandinavian settlement in the 8th (dark red), 9th (red), 10th (orange) centuries. Yellow shows Norman conquests (descendants of the Vikings) in the 11th century. Green denotes areas subjected to Viking raids.
​
<H>
Pope Gregory VII: *
Hildebrand (Gregory’s pre-papal name) was a colleague of Abbot Bruno of Toul. When Bruno was elected Pope (Leo IX) in 1049 Hildebrand was named deacon & papal administrator. He would serve as a key papal administrator & diplomat for the next 14 years. During this period he served as papal legate in the Berengar controversy over transubstantiation. In 1059 the bull In Nomine Domini (Latin: In the name of the Lord) was promulgated by Nicholas II, establishing the College of Cardinals as the sole instrument for the election of popes. He was key in securing election of Alexander II (1061) who then issued reforms devised by Hildebrand.
Elected pope in 1073, Gregory summoned a council in the Lateran palace (1074) which condemned simony & confirmed celibacy, under threat of excommunication; he also decreed that only popes could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see. These acts set the stage for the Investiture Contest.
The Investiture Contest focused on papal-German relations. Henry IV was 23 when he came to the German throne. He needed Church support to balance an insubordinate nobility. Especially acute were his relations with Saxony. From 1065 he faced resistance in enforcing Imperial authority here. His attempt to restore royal rights in the Harz forests were not received well, likewise extending crownlands or increased demands on the royal demesne for taxes. His active promotion of Swabian officials angered locals & many Saxon men saw Great Harz Castle (built 1065-68) as tyranny aimed at them. In 1073 open resistance broke out.
Henry needed all the friends he could get. In 1066 he assembled forces to support the pope against the Italo-Normans of S. Italy. He meekly submitted when the Church forbade him divorcing his wife & in 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg, in the presence of papal legates & took an oath of obedience, promising to support Church reforms. With the defeat of the Saxons at Battle of Homburg (1075) he changed his tune, re-asserting his rights as sovereignty in northern Italy. He installed his chaplain, Tedald, a Milanese priest, as Bishop of Milan, when another priest of Milan, Atto, had already been chosen in Rome by the pope. Gregory replied with an intimidating letter (1075), threatening the ban & loss of crown. This infuriated Henry & he called a national council at Worms, where bishops renounced obligations & he was declared deposed by Henry. Early in 1076 Gregory excommunicated Henry: he was ejected from the Church & stripped of his crown.
In Germany popular opinion favoured Gregory, which combined with the political manoeuvring of the nobility & princes. The anti-royalist party waxed in strength, Henry was abandoned by his nobility & the Saxons renewed their rebellion. In October, goaded on by a papal legate, the princes met to elect a new ruler. Although they failed to agree on a successor they gave Henry an ultimatum: gain absolution within a year or lose the crown. In the end Henry walked to Italy seeking papal forgiveness at Canossa, barefoot. Gregory found it impossible to deny Henry re-entrance into the Church (1077).
This was not a genuine reconciliation & did not answer the main issue: investiture (the appointment of clerical office). It changed nothing for the German princes who elected a rival king, Duke Rudolf of Swabia (1077) sparking the great Saxon Revolt in Germany. Rudolf however had little popular support & was forced to flee Saxony. Inconclusive battles were fought. Initially Gregory was neutral but in in 1080 he opted for Rudolf, Henry was again excommunicated. This time the papal censure was perceived as politically motivated & a gross injustice. The pope steadily lost support in Germany & Italy while the princes were critically weakened by the death of Rudolf (1080). Henry ignored the excommunication, called a council, deposed Gregory & had an anti-Pope elected (Clement III). In 1081 he marched into Italy supporting the rival pope. Northern Italy was subjected to a raging series of battles, Rome was besieged multiple times & finally fell in 1083. Gregory fled to Castel Sant'Angelo. Roman support shifted to Henry. In 1084 the anti-Pope Clement III crowned Henry Emperor in Rome. However the approach of a papal ally in the form of a Norman adventurer forced Henry to abandon the city. Gregory was freed, called on a crusade against Henry. Gregory died in 1085.
<I>
Pope Innocent III: *
Universal Authority
Innocent interpreted the Muslim recapture of Jerusalem in 1187 as divine judgment on the moral lapses of Christian princes. He was determined that princes should not be involved in the selection of bishops, and aimed to protect the sovereignty of the Papal Sates (in Central Italy). This region was routinely threatened by Hohenstaufen German kings who as emperors claimed it for themselves. The plans of Henry VI to place Sicily, Germany & the Empire under a single crown (his sons) was a clear threat to the Papal States.
The death of Henry IV in 1197 left his 4 year old son Frederick II as king; during his minority Henry’s widow Constance acted as regent in Sicily. She allied with innocent & allowed him to recover papal rights in Sicily lost under earlier popes. Innocent aimed to gain universal authority with greater involvement in Imperial elections & wrote to power brokers in various regions. One of his most blatant letters was a papal decree of 1201, which asserted the empire is derived from the authority of the papacy & that the pope personally raised the emperor to his position. At the time there were 3 candidates for the office of emperor; in this decree Innocent opted for Otto (a Welf & supported by King Richard of England) & against Fredrick II (son of Henry VI & a minor) and Philip (brother of Henry VI and supported by Philip of France). Otto was a confirmed opponent of the Hohenstaufen & compliant with Church demands. In 1202 Innocent issued another decree defining the relation between the Empire & the papacy. Among other things he states that the pope has a veto on such appointments & can force the princes to another election if their candidate is unworthy. Despite papal support Otto could not defeat Philip. Only when Philip was murdered in a private feud did Otto rule undisputed. He now reneged on his promises & worked to re-establishing Imperial power in Italy, claiming the Kingdom of Sicily. Innocent now backed King Frederick of Sicily. The latter was duly elected. The issue was decided by battle in 1214. Otto was allied to King John of England against Philip II who defeated Otto. He died in 1218 leaving the throne open to Frederick. King John of England now had to acknowledged Innocent III as his feudal lord & accepted Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury. Innocent III played further roles in the politics of Norway, France, Sweden, Bulgaria, Spain & England. In the latter (at the request of King John) he declared Magna Carta annulled, resulting in a rebellion by the English Barons.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-04)
The main project of Innocent III was the 4th Crusade to the Holy Land, which he announced in 1198. His sent missionaries to every Catholic state to endorse the campaign. Efforts here were rewarded in France where a sizable number of the nobility answered his call. In England & Germany few volunteered & consequently it was mostly a French crusade. Crusades were expensive so he raised funds by forcing the entire clergy to donate 1/40th of their incomes. This was resisted & disregarded in many areas (England). Crusaders themselves were expected to contribute especially if they took the vow & then failed to go. Money would prove to be a major issue. The plan was for Venetian ships to take the Crusaders to Egypt; however the French failed to raise the necessary funds. The Venetians suggested they raise the money with a raid. Innocent condemned this but in the end the Christian city of Zara was pillaged. Next came Constantinople. Again Innocent condemned the Crusaders but came to believe it would force the Byzantine Church to submit to Rome. The crusade did lead to the start of the Latin Empire’s rule of Constantinople, which lasted for the next sixty years.
Albigensian Crusade (1209-29)
A vigorous opponent of religious dissent (perceived as heresy) Innocent campaigned against the Albigenses (aka Cathars) a sect in SW France. They rejected the authority of the Church which they viewed as corrupt. In 1198 Innocent III dispatched a monk with the power to excommunicate heretics, with orders to local t authorities to confiscate the lands of heretics. The murder of a papal legate in 1209 led to a severe reaction. The pope called on Philip II of France to suppress the heretics. This crusade led to the slaughter of 20,000 men, women & children, Cathar & Catholic alike, directed against both heretics, local nobility (of Toulouse) & vassals of the Crown of Aragon. King Peter II of Aragon was killed here in 1213. The region was brought firmly under French control. It ended in 1229 with the Treaty of Paris.
the Franciscan Order (1210)
In 1209, Francis of Assisi went to Rome seeking permission from Innocent to found a new religious Order, which was ultimately granted in 1210. Thus the Franciscan Order was born, the friars, who preached on the streets & had no possessions.
Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
Innocent was involved in insuring the papacy was recognized as the universal authority of the Empire. This council was asked to further these ends & defined a number of fundamental doctrines, notably:
-
the nature of the Eucharist,
-
annual confession of sins,
-
procedures for the election of bishops,
-
a strict lifestyle for clergy,
-
banned clerical participation in judicial procedures involving painful punishments to prove atonement or innocence,
-
Jews were to wear special identifying markings on their clothing.
<J>
Crusades: *
In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade at the Council of Clermont to provide military support for the Byzantine Empire against the Seljuk Turks. It would also guarantee access to Christian Holy sites under Muslim control & might have ended the Schism of 1054 between the East & West (with Urban as the overall head). His call was received with enthusiasm by all in Western Europe. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a public vow & receiving plenary indulgences. Motives were religious (forgiveness of sins) as well as the hunger for glory, honour, wealth & political gains. The First Crusade (1095-99) established Crusader states in the E. Mediterranean: Edessa, Antioch, Jerusalem & Tripoli. Despite this success, Muslim forces eventually re-grouped & under Saladin (1137-93) the first sultan of Egypt & Syria, Muslim armies went on the offensive. Saladin lured the Christians into inhospitable terrain without water supplies, surrounded them with superior forces & routed them at the Battle of Hattin (1187). He quickly took the rest of Palestine to include Jerusalem. The 3rd crusade (1189–1192), aimed to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin. It was successful in capturing Acre & Jaffa & reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but critically failed to capture Jerusalem, the emotional & spiritual motivation for the Crusade. The 200 year attempt to recover the Holy Lands ended in failure. Following the First Crusade there were 6 major Crusades, none after 1291 when the last Christian outposts fell. The Crusades had a profound impact on the West, they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce & travel, enabling Genoa & Venice to flourish; they consolidated the identity of the Latin Church under papal leadership; they provided a wellspring for stories of heroism, chivalry & piety that galvanised medieval romance, philosophy & literature.