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temple of Venus & Rome (vaulting): *
the ceilings use a coffer, a series of sunken panels in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, used as decoration for a ceiling; the strength of the structure is in the framework of the coffers; often employed to lighten the weight of the dome (see the ceiling of the rotunda dome in the Pantheon, Rome).
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Baths of Caracalla (domed chamber): *
The baths consisted of a central frigidarium (cold room 190 x 79 feet) under 3 groin vaults 108 feet high. Its roof was supported by 8 giant columns made from Egyptian granite; walls and floor were made from marble; it served a dual purpose as a meeting place and transition area for visitors heading for other parts of the bath. It also housed the cold baths, in the form of four pools, two of which were connected to the tepidarium. It was flanked by 2 additional brick pools. Another monumental chamber was the caldarium, a circular room with marble floors topped by a dome of almost 118 feet in diameter (almost the same size of the Pantheon's dome). The weight of the dome was carried by 8 masonry pillars. Between them were glass windows that helped heat the large room (and reduced the weight of the walls). Its seven pools measured 9.5 m by 5 m (depth of 1 m). see illustration
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Temple of Minerva Medica: *
There is no mention of it in ancient literature or inscriptions. The structure represents a transition in Roman secular architecture between the octagonal dining room of the Domus Aurea and the dome of the Pantheon, in particular, and the architecture of nearby Byzantine churches. The diameter of the hall is about 24 metres, and the height was 33. In the interior are 9 niches, besides the entrance; and above these are 10 corresponding round-arched windows; walls (interior & exterior) once covered with marble.
<D>
domed basilica (Russia): *
Cathedral of the Archangel Russian Orthodox church dedicated to the Archangel Michael Moscow Kremlin main necropolis of the Tsars of Russia until the relocation of the capital to St. Petersburg. Constructed 1505-8 under the supervision of an Italian architect Aloisio the New on the spot of an older cathedral, built in 1333. It uses of five domes (representing Jesus Christ and the Four Evangelists. the exterior ornamentation its characteristic semi-circular niches with shell-shaped ornaments and gateways with arc-shaped frames made of white limestone, which are coated with paint and decorated with floral ornaments point to the Italian Renaissance influence.
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Shan-tung: *
a coastal province in E. China
<F>
East Aramean Persian style: *
During the Sasanian era (224-651 AD) Aramaic was widely used & provided scripts for Middle Persian. Persian architectural styles reached their peak during the Sasanian era. This civilization, the last great pre-Islamic Persian Empire before the Conquest, provided Muslims with inspiration & many aspects of Islamic architecture have roots in this style.
The Palace of Ardashir
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(built AD 224 AD during the Sassanid Dynasty)
The plan of the entire building is an oblong square, without adjuncts or projections; its main entrance is into a lofty vaulted porch or hall by an archway of the entire width of the apartment; beside these oblong halls, the building contains square apartments, vaulted with domes, circular at their bas & elliptical in their section, resting on pendentives of an unusual character; the apartments are numerous and en suite, opening one into another, without passages; and fifthly, the palace comprises a court, placed towards the rear of the building, with apartments opening into it.
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see illustrations
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Venice (St Marks & Byzantium influence):*
The architecture of St. Mark’s Church is rooted in the culture of Constantinople. It was modelled on the Church of the Twelve Apostles (built in Justinian’s day, destroyed 1462). It is a quadrilateral space measuring 60 metres each side; the plan is a Greek cross, both arms are subdivided into nave & 2 aisles. This is a mix of Italian & Byzantine features, notably the treatment of the eastern arm as the termination of a basilica with main apse and 2 side chapels rather than as an equal arm of a centralized structure. Beyond the transept, delimited by the iconostasis, the area of the eastern arm is occupied by the presbytery in the centre and, at the sides, by the chapels of St. Peter to the north and St. Clement to the south. In the first half of the 13th century the narthex & the new facade were built & most of the mosaics were completed and the domes were covered with second much higher domes of lead-covered wood in order to blend in with the Gothic architecture of the redesigned Doge's Palace. It follows the tenets of Byzantine religious architecture: the principle of bipartition into earthly zone (floor and walls) and celestial (vaulted ceilings and cupolas). Purpose and function are underlined by the different materials used to cover the masonry. The upper part has a strikingly celestial and metaphysical connotation due to the light produced by the tesserae in coloured glass or gold leaf, symbolising the light of paradise; the lower zone underlines earthliness with the solidity of the marbles of the walls (rich in colours, but dull ones, and in geometrical signs) and of the floor. This floor includes opus sectile (obtained by setting out pieces of different coloured marble to create the most varied geometrical forms) and opus tessellatum (obtained with tiny pieces of marble or glass used to create floral motifs or animal figures), with a clear prevalence of the former technique over the latter. Both techniques originated in antiquity & reflect the wealth of the city which bought the precious marbles but also secured a workforce (architects & mosaicists) from Constantinople or Byzantine Greece. The mosaics reflect Venice’s history, from its Greek-Byzantine origins to the local artistic expressions and the skills to represent and interpret outside influences. With their warm colours, particularly gold, they decorate the ample spaces, from 28 metres wide up to 21 metres high. As in Middle-Eastern churches, the interaction of the decoration with a dim, but ever changing light, according to the time of day, creates a range of evocative and intense effects..
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<H>
Norman-Hohenstaufen (rule in Palermo):*
Political Enviroment
The Normans: Arab rule in Sicily fragmented as petty fiefdoms battled each other. In 1061 the Normans under Robert Guiscard & his brother Roger Bosso arrived, the pope had conferred on Robert the title of "Duke of Sicily" to encourage him. By 1063 he established a foothold; by 1072 he had taken Palermo & that year invested Roger as Count of Sicily. The conquest was an on/off again affair but in 1091 the final Saracen garrison surrendered though Arab governors continued to rule. Only in 1127 did Roger II abolish the Muslim government, replacing it with Norman officials. This conquest was however only a starter for the Normans, who also invaded & began the conquest of Italy. The Norman finalized their conquests in 1130 when southern Italy was united with Sicily as the Kingdom of Sicily. Roger II (now recognized by Pope Innocent II) spent a decade centralising the government, fending off invasions & quelling rebellions by his vassals. His son followed this same pattern; he died in 1155 leaving a minor heir. This led to unrest but by 1172 Sicily once again enjoyed prosperity under William II who died in 1189 without issue.
the Hohenstaufen: William II named his Aunt Constance (daughter of Roger II) heiress. She married Henry VI, a future Holy Roman Emperor. When the Sicilian barons revolted Henry invaded & eventually the kingdom fell to him. In 1198 the 4 year old Frederick (1194-1250) took the throne. Sicily needed strong royal authority & the reign of a minor led to instability. In addition Pope Innocent III feared Hohenstaufen rule; he re-asserted papal control in Sicily but saw papal powers decrease. Frederick became a pawn in the power struggles between the Sicilian nobility. While Hohenstaufen rule was tentative the Sicilian constitution moved forward. The promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi (1231) were a collection of laws aimed at dealing with the endemic anarchy caused by the various factions & power struggles in Sicily In effect it established a centralized state. For example, citizens were not allowed to carry weapons or wear armour in public unless authorized by royal command; this reduced violence. The Constitution made Sicily an absolute monarchy & the first centralized state in Europe to emerge from feudalism; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law. After the death of Frederick in 1250 Henry VII & Conrad IV of Germany ruled Sicily. With the accession of a minor Conrad II in 1254 Sicily fell under the rule of a usurper. The papacy & Sicily now engaged in a war, the former declaring the Kingdom escheated & under this pretext he came to an agreement with Louis IX, King of France: Louis's brother, Charles of Anjou, would become king of Sicily. Hohenstaufen rule ended after the 1266 Angevin invasion & death of Conradin in 1268.
Cultural Enviroment
The Palatine Chapel is the royal chapel of the Norman kings of Sicily sited in the Palazzo Reale in Palermo, Sicily; commissioned by Roger II of Sicily in 1132 it was finished in 1140, the mosaics mostly finished 1143. It is dedicated to Saint Peter & reminiscent of a domed basilica. It has 3 apses (standard Byzantine architecture) with 6 pointed arches (3 on each side of the central nave) resting on recycled classical columns.Cappella Palatina in Palermo Sicily- combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the Norman architecture & door decor, Arabic arches & script adorning the roof, a Byzantine dome and mosaics. An example a Muslim design are the clusters of 4 eight-pointed stars arranged on the ceiling to form a Christian cross. Other Islamic features include the muqarnas ceiling with hundreds of facets painted, many purely ornamental vegetal and zoomorphic designs but also with scenes of daily life and subjects yet to be explained. Stylistically influenced by Iraqi 'Abbasid art, these paintings are innovative in their more spatially aware representation of personages and of animals.
above: Saracen arches and Byzantine mosaics complement each other within the chapel
above: Muqarnas, a common element in Arabic architecture
<I>
Moorish buildings (Spain/ East Aramean Persian style):*
Great Mosque of Cordoba. In 784 Abd al-Rahman I ordered its construction. It is notable for its arcaded hypostyle hall, with 856 columns of jasper, onyx, marble, granite & porphyry, made from pieces of the older Roman temples. The double arches were an innovation, permitting higher ceilings than would otherwise be possible with relatively low columns. These arches consist of a lower horseshoe arch with an upper semi-circular arch. The famous alternating red and white voussoirs of the arches were inspired by those in the Dome of the Rock. The horseshoe arch style dates back to the 3rd century. A centrally located honeycombed dome has blue tiles decorated with stars. The hall has a richly gilded prayer niche (mihrab) decorated with geometric & flowing plant designs. It features an open court surrounded by arcades, screens of wood, minarets, colourful mosaics & windows of coloured glass. In keeping with Muslim practice decorations avoid representing living things instead using tile work, calligraphy & architectural forms. For instance the walls of the mosque are covered in Quranic inscriptions. The floor plan copies those of the earliest mosques, the rectangular hall was large & flat, with timber ceilings held up by horseshoe arches. Its aisles are arranged perpendicular to the qibla, the direction towards which Muslims pray. Under Hisham (3rd Umayyad Caliph of Spain, Al-Andalus 976–1013) the mosque area was 460 x 280 feet, flanked with fortified walls, with watch towers & a tall minaret. There were 9 outer gates and 11 inner doors. Each door led to an aisle within the mosque. The court had spacious gates on the north, west, and east sides, and fountains for the purification of the pious. The eleven north-to-south aisles were crossed by twenty-one narrower ones running from east to west. New features continued to be built: a staircase to the roof was added, the mosque was extended to the south, a bridge linked the prayer hall with the Caliphs palace & in the 11th century the courtyard was turned into a park with citrus & palm trees irrigated, at first by rainwater cisterns, later by aqueduct.
see illustrations
below: large hypostyle prayer hall
note the arches with red voussoir
exterior view
below: view towards ceiling
note the mihrab or prayer niche, a masterpiece of architectural art, with geometric and flowing designs of plants.
