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Syncretic: *
In the centuries after Christ’s resurrection there were many competing "Jesus movements". The emperors used syncretism to help unite the expanding empire. Conversion to Christianity occurred all over Europe & was more effective when missionaries conformed to local established cultural traditions & synthesized them with Christian theory & practices. Gnosticism was a form of syncretism which challenged early Christianity. It incorporated elements from Oriental mystery religions & posited a dualism that specified only spiritual or invisible things were good, material or visible things were evil. Orthodox Christianity, although influenced by other religions, generally looked negatively upon these syncretistic movements. They opposed the Gnostics & insisted that matter was essentially good since, God created all things, spiritual & material, saying it was "very good". Simon Magus appears as one of the early proponents and founder of Gnosticism; he was denounced by many Church authorities, including Peter himself & is seen as the source of all heresies. Manichaeism was a syncretistic movement in the Orient. It was a dualistic religion founded in the 3rd-century-AD by the Iranian prophet Mani, who combined elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism.
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Baal cults: *
The Temple of Baalshamin ancient temple in Palmyra, Syria, dedicated to the Canaanite sky deity Baalshamin (the Semitic god of the heavens). The temple's earliest phase dates to the late 2nd century BC; its altar was built in 115 AD, temple was substantially rebuilt in 131 AD. It was originally a part of an extensive precinct of 3 courtyards, a fusion of ancient Syrian & Roman architectural styles. The temple's proportions and the capitals of its columns were Roman in inspiration, while the elements above the architrave and the side windows followed the Syrian tradition. The highly stylized acanthus patterns of the Corinthian orders also indicated an Egyptian influence. It had a 6 column pronaos with traces of corbels and an interior which was modelled on the classical cella. The side walls were decorated with pilasters
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Mithraeum: *
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A mithraeum found in the ruins of Ostia Antica, Italy reconstruction oreconstruction of a mithraeum (Museum Orientalis in the Netherlands)
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Mazdaist fire-temple: *
The chahar-taqi (4 directions) fire temple plan is similar to early Parthian & Sassanian fire temples (in Iran). The structure is simple, open, yet substantial & situated within a walled area. The walls and openings faced the 4 cardinal directions. They are aligned with the solar-based cardinal points & the temples allowed the worshipers to determine the seasons & significant days (using the position of the sun at sunrise, noon & sunset). Zoroastrians mark these days with festivals & they were important for farmers in determining sowing times & for live-stock owners as well. This design continued to be used for fire temples during the Sassanian era.
The earliest example of a chahar-taqi temple in present-day Iran is Bazeh Khur, it dates to the Parthian era 247 BC-224 AD, it served as a solar observatory in order to fix dates. Bazeh means mountain edge and Khur means Sun. Note the dome; the use of domes in Iranian-Zoroastrian structures predates the Islamic use of domes in mosques.
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illustration of a Chahar-Taqi Fire temple
(Niasar, near Kashan, Esfahan)
<E>
cult buildings of …Abyssinian: *
Biete Medhane Alem, Orthodox underground monolith rock-cut church located in Lalibela, Ethiopia; built during the Kingdom of Axum (100-940 AD). The name means House of the Saviour of the World.
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Pauline West: *
Following his conversion he travelled to Damascus, then Arabia & back to Jerusalem; he also spent time in Antioch, a major Christian centre. His first missionary journey was in the Middle East; following this he returned to Antioch. In 50 AD he was in Jerusalem for a meeting of the disciples & early Christian leaders. The burning issue was circumcision & whether this was important for Christians. Following this council Paul & Peter confronted each other at the in Antioch. This confrontation between Peter (a conservative who placed great prestige on Jewish tradition & ritual) & Paul (who discounted the rituals of Judaism as unimportant) was a total failure and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata. His second mission was in the E Mediterranean & Macedonia. He also travelled & taught in Athens & Corinth. His 3rd mission was to Anatolia & Greece and included Spain. This is corroborated by the early Christian, Pope Clement I (pope 88-99 AD) who said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", that "he had gone to the extremity of the west". John Chrysostom (349-447 AD) indicated that Paul preached in Spain and Cyril of Jerusalem (313-386) said that Paul preached in Rome and Spain.
In 57 AD, during his 3rd mission, he returned to Jerusalem where he was met with fierce opposition by Jewish elements. He was only saved form death when he was arrested by Roman Centurions. He spent the rest of his life (another 4 years) as a prisoner. He eventually requested trial in Rome (60 AD). He was beheaded during Nero’s reign in 65 AD. Though he did not found the church in Rome he did support it and preached there.
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triangle of cities Edessa, Nisbis, Amida: *
map
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Nisibis: *
Aramaean kingdom first mentioned 901 BC, captured by Assyrians 896 BC & annexed to the Neo-Assyrian Empire 825; in 608 BC it came under Babylonian control; in 536 BC it fell to the Achaemenid Persians; in 332 Alexander captured the city; re-established by the Seleucids. During the Roman & Parthian wars, Nisibis was often taken and retaken with great regularity (115 AD, 194, 217 260, 298 AD acquired by Rome; second round of war started in 337 AD, Rome ceded the city to the Persians in 363 AD). Home to the theological, philosophical & medical School of Nisibis, founded with the introduction of Christianity in the city by ethnic Assyrians (Assyrian Church of the East). When the city was ceded to the Persians it closed which led to an exodus of Christians, who re-established the school in Edessa which became a centre of Nestorian Christianity. It was closed by Archbishop Cyrus in 489; the expelled masters & pupils returned to Nisibis & established second school of Nisibis with the same by-laws as the first. It was chiefly a school of theology. The 2 chief masters were the instructors in reading & the interpretation of Holy Scripture. Its course of study lasted for 3 years. While tuition was free, the students had to pay for their up-keep; at university, masters & students led a monastic life. The school had a tribunal & acquired much property. Its rich library possessed a beautiful collection of Nestorian works. In the 6th century the school faced considerable disorder & dissension. This worked to favour its rivals, especially the schools of Seleucia.
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“…’Classical’ Syncretism modifies a…Euclidean place”: *
The Isis cult was introduced to Rome in the 2nd century BC. Its reception was rough. In 53 BC the Senate ordered the destruction of all private shrines inside the pomerium dedicated to Egyptian gods; however the second Triumvirate in 43 BC voted for a new temple to Serapis & Isis. Repressive measures against Egyptian cults were decreed by Augustus in 28 BC, Agrippa in 21 BC & Tiberius (in 9 AD). The cult was reinstalled in 65 AD & practiced until the end of the late imperial period when all pagan cults were forbidden.
The temple was built between 20 & 10 BC; it was rebuilt by Domitian after its destruction in the great fire of 80 AD, and again restored by Severus Alexander
Made up of a southern section comprising a semi-circular apse with several exedrae & a courtyard surrounded by porticoes on the north & southern sides, with an entrance to the East. It was a rectangle 220 x 70 m that comprised wells, obelisks & Egyptian statues, along with a small temple of Isis in the northern section. Coins provide a rough idea, one shows a small Corinthian temple on a podium, with an Egyptian-style architrave with solar disk and ureai topped by a pediment showing Isis-Sothis riding the dog Sirius; the columns frame the cult statue of the goddess inside the cella. In other renditions it is shown with a flat roof; some depictions show a tetrastyla (porch with 4 columns) temple on podium with flat top, and a similar structure with a pediment, interpreted as the temple of Serapis; some depictions show a 3 bayed arch that could be the propylon (gateway) to the sanctuary.
