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Mystic: *
Mysticism flourished in the High Middle Ages (1000-1300 AD) & included such figures as Guigo II, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Victorines (all from different monastic orders). The Late Middle Ages (1300-1500) saw conflict between 2 different mystical theologies: Dominic de Guzmán versus Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, Bonaventure, Jacopone da Todi & Angela of Foligno. Regional centres of mysticism grew up: the Beguines, the Rhenish-Flemish mystics (Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler), English mystics Richard Rolle. Several famous mystics date from this period, notably Catherine of Siena & Catherine of Genoa. During this period the Devotio Moderna movement began & the mystical books The Imitation of Christ, Theologia Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing were written. The Reformation denigrated mysticism but it influenced Luther (through Eckhart, Tauler as well as Wesenmystik); Luther claimed the Theologia Germanica was second ONLY to the Bible. Calvin likewise was also influenced, notably by Jean Gerson & the Devotio Moderna. The Counter-Reformation saw a new flowering of mystical activity. Spain in particular had a number of famous mystics to include Teresa of Ávila & John of the Cross. Ignatius Loyola wrote his his Spiritual Exercises. French mystics included Francis de Sales, Jeanne Guyon, François Fénelon, Brother Lawrence and Blaise Pascal.
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Moorish Spain, Sicily & the East: *
The pointed arch is a good example of the Magian influence on Gothic. This reduced architectural thrust by about 20% & had practical advantages over the semi-circular Romanesque arch. It is a fundamental element of the Gothic cathedral. It originated in the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. Examples of its use by the Byzantines is seen in arches in Sant'Apollinare (Classe, Ravenna) & the Hagia Irene, Constantinople. The pointed arch was subsequently adopted & widely used by Muslim architects & became the characteristic arch of Islamic architecture. It then spread to Islamic lands (such as Sicily) & from there to Amalfi in Italy, before the end of the 11th century.
The map BELOW shows contact points, Spain & Sicily. Commerce also contributed to Islamic influence. Venice, situated on the Adriatic Sea, had always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire & Muslim world.
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Jewish philosophers (Medieval religion): *
From Maimonides several “truths” emerged. First, the unity of the Law & wisdom: Jews in the Middle Ages accepted the Law & the prophetic writings of their tradition was the word of God & absolutely true. The battles between Jewish philosophers & traditionalists centred on the nature & extent of allegory. Most accepted that non‑literal exegesis was appropriate but which parts of Scripture could be read as allegories & what "secret doctrines" could be uncovered? Some believed that the Bible, properly understood, taught physics & metaphysics. These philosophers, including Maimonides, believed that the pursuit of wisdom was best left to the wise, a very elitist approach. Finally, they accepted the universal character of wisdom. Maimonides’ dictum "Accept the truth from whoever says it" became the watchword for Jewish philosophers of all stripes, from the most radical to the most conservative. Initially popular among intellectuals, it led to a reaction among the traditionalists. By the late 15th century the traditionalists came to dominate & the study of Jewish philosophy went into decline.
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Arabian dualism: *
Dualism posits that mind and matter are so utterly different in their essences that one cannot affect the other. A person's mind cannot be the true cause of his hand's moving, nor can a physical wound be the true cause of mental anguish. In other words, the mental cannot cause the physical and vice versa. The will of God is taken to be necessary. This is the root of Occasionalism, which emerged in the 9th century in the Islamic theological schools of Iraq (especially in Basra). Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari argued that there is no Secondary Causation in the created order. The world is sustained & governed through direct intervention of a divine primary causation; the world is in a constant state of recreation by God. The illusion of cause & effect occurs because God causes one event after another; there is no necessary connection between the 2. Because God is usually seen as rational, not arbitrary, his behaviour in causing events in the same sequence (appearing to us as efficient cause/effect) is perceived as a reflection of the laws of nature. In fact these are not laws of nature but laws by which God governs his behaviour, his rational will. Occasionalism includes positions where God's behaviour (and thus the natural world) is seen as enigmatic, thus maintaining God's essential transcendence. Anomalies such as miracles are not really anomalies but simply God behaving in a way that appears unusual to us. Given his transcendent freedom, he is not bound even by his own nature. Miracles, as breaks in the rational structure of the universe, can occur, since God's relationship with the world is not mediated by rational principles.
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Spinoza (idea of Deity): *
Spinoza was considered an atheist ; his God was concept totally different from Judeo–Christian monotheism. Everything that exists in Nature, everything in the Universe, is 1 Reality (or substance); there is only 1 set of rules governing reality. God & Nature are the same, which is a single, fundamental substance (meaning "that which stands beneath" rather than "matter"). Substance is the basis of the universe & all lesser "entities" are modes or modifications of his. All things are determined by Nature to exist & cause effects & the complex chain of cause-& -effect is only partially understood. He denies personality & consciousness to God, who has neither intelligence, feeling nor will & does not act according to purpose; everything follows necessarily from his nature, according to law. This indifferent God is the antithesis of an anthropomorphic, fatherly God who cares about humanity.
Like Messenia, Arcadia was threatened by Spartan aggression but successfully resisted; at the battle of the Fetters (550 BC) they defeated the Spartans. Following this the Spartans changed their tactics, from conquest to alliance building and the Peloponnesian League emerged.
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For the next 2 centuries Sparta dominated the city states of the Peloponnesus. In 370, in an attempt to maintain some prestige & status (following their defeat by Thebes at Leuctra, 371 BC) they invaded Arcadia. The latter appealed to Boeotia (home of the polis Thebes). Boeotia responded and a large army (led by Epaminondas) marched on Sparta and then Messenia where the helots were already rebelling. Epaminondas made that rebellion permanent by fortifying the city of Messene.
