36.
Spaniard Charles V: *
was son of Joanne (Q. of Castile & Aragon) and Philip IV of Burgundy. From 1506 ruler of Burgundy (from his father); king of Spain & its overseas Empire in 1516 (from his mother); Austria in 1519 (from his Hapsburg grandfather Maximillian); elected Holy Roman Emperor 1519. His empire was further augmented between 1519 and 1542, when Cortés and Pizarro conquered the large Aztec & Inca empires, incorporating them into the Spanish Empire. Their conquests provided the Spanish treasury with enormous amounts of bullion. The Spanish American empire was the source of his power & wealth. It was a vast territory & brought him a virtual river of silver. These exploits & the circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan (1522) convinced Charles of his divine mission to act as the leader of Christendom.
His struggle with the Ottoman Empire was fought in Hungary & the Mediterranean. After crushing Hungarian forces in 1526, the Ottomans' advance was halted at their failed Siege of Vienna in 1529. Ferdinand (younger brother of Charles) would fight a lengthy war of attrition in Hungary for the rest of Charles V’s reign. In the Mediterranean he enjoyed some successes, but was unable to prevent the Ottomans' increasing naval dominance & the growing menace of the Barbary pirates. Charles opposed the Reformation, condemning Luther in 1521 at Worms; he sought compromise with reform in the Church. He came into conflict with the Protestant Princes of the Schmalkaldic League (motivated by both religious & political opposition to Charles). He could not stem the Protestant tide and despite victory against the Princes at Mühlberg (1547), he was forced to concede the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which divided Germany along confessional lines. The main war of his reign was conducted against France & fought in Italy. Charles recovered territory lost early in the reign & in 1525 decisively defeated Francis at Pavia. However the French recovered & this conflict would (like the other 2) continue for the rest of his reign. He faced internal rebellion 3 times: in the vital territories of Castile, the Frisian lands, and later in his reign in the city of Ghent. Between 1554-56 he abdicated, physically exhausted by his unending struggles.
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Philip II: *
His inheritance included Naples & Sicily (1554), lord of the Netherlands (1555), King of Spain (1556), Portugal (1581), of jure uxoris King of England & Ireland (1554-58 while married to Queen Mary I ); also Duke of Milan. His empire included territories on every continent then known.
While he did not stem the Protestant tide, maintain his rule in the Netherlands or successfully invade England he did end French ambitions in Italy, brought about Habsburg domination in Europe and insured France would remain Catholic; he began settlements in the Philippines, established the first trans-Pacific trade route between America & Asia, consolidating Spain's overseas empire and secured the Portuguese kingdom & empire. He imported tonnes of silver in the face of English, Dutch & French privateers. He had to cope with multiple financial crises: state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575 & 1596, partially caused by the independence of the Dutch Republic (1581). He ended the Ottoman threat to Europe though the conflict would continue.
38.
Loyola: *
The 15th century Church suffered from serious abuses: clerical ignorance, poor training & illiteracy; corruption (especially in the hierarchy, in particular at Rome, with nepotism, pluralism, simony and immorality among the highest). Papal supremacy was threatened by the councillor movement (14th-16th century) which claimed ultimate authority & which directly threatened papal supremacy. The papacy was also under attack from the secular crowns of Europe. In the 16th century all of the above was complicated by the Reformation. The dogma, unity & the head of the church were now in jeopardy; it was a moment of supreme crisis.
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Loyola & the Jesuits were key players in reversing many of the above issues. This order (although not alone) stands out as being particularly pious, devoted to their mission and their lifestyle (e.g. celibacy, poverty, obedience). There was no room in the order for the easy going pleasure loving Italian style priesthood or hierarchy. At the same time they were devoted disciples of the Pope taking an oath to obey only Rome (pointedly NOT secular heads). Their mission consisted in the twin aims of education and evangelizing & missionary work. As educators they founding schools, colleges, universities & seminaries, they became famous for their intellectual research & cultural pursuits. They were instrumental in spreading the message of the Church into Asia, S & N America & Africa as well as the recovery of southern Germany for the Church.
39.
Spanish Cardinals (diplomacy of): *
As a member of the Church & as part of the Imperial diplomatic service Granvelle attended several diets of the empire & the opening meetings of Trent (1545), which he addressed for Charles V. Entrusted with difficult & delicate public business, he developed a talent for diplomacy, while acquiring intimate acquaintance with European politics. Involved in peace terms after the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547. In 1550 he succeeded his father as Spanish secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice of Saxony & accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck; afterwards drew up the Peace of Passau (1552). He conducted the negotiations for the marriage of Mary & Philip II. In 1555 he transferred his services to Philip II & was employed in the Netherlands. He helped write the terms for Cateau Cambrésis (1559). Appointed chief councillor to the regent Margaret of Parma in 1559. His policy of religious repression in the Netherlands led to rewards (made cardinal 1561); however the growing hostility of the Dutch Protestants made it impossible for him to continue in the Netherlands; Philip advised his retirement to the Franche-Comté in 1564. In 1566 Pope Pius V appointed him to the Congregation of "Principi" (HQ foreign policy). He was instrumental in establishing the Holy League (1570) which eventually triumphed at Lepanto (1571). Between 1571-76 he served as viceroy of Naples, a difficult & dangerous role where he enjoyed success. In 1575 Philip made him president of the council for Italian affairs. His most delicate negotiations were those leading to the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain & Portugal in 1580. In 1584, he negotiated the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy, a check to France ambitions.
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40.
Philip II's wars:*
Naval aggression from Ottoman Turks was a serious threat to Europe. In 1558 they captured the Balearic Islands, raided & burned Menorca & the coasts of Spain. Philip organised the Holy League (Spain, Venice, Genoa, the Pope, Savoy and the Knights of Malta); their joint fleet captured the strategic island of Djerba in 1560; Suleiman responded & in the ensuing battle won an overwhelming victory. In 1565 the Ottomans laid siege to Malta but a Spanish relief force drove them away. At Lepanto (1571) the Holy League under the command of Don Juan of Austria (Philip's half-brother) won a resounding victory, destroying the entire Ottoman fleet. This was the end of the naval threat from the Turks. In 1585 Spain & the Ottomans signed a peace treaty.
In the Spanish Netherlands the Dutch were frustrated with direct rule from Madrid, its heavy taxation & the presence of Spanish troops under Alva. However the fundamental cause of friction was religious. The Reformation had gained a foothold here & Lutherans, Anabaptists & Calvinists were all active. The Spanish Inquisition imposed strict religious uniformity & this resulted in incessant persecution. In 1566 the Protestants reacted with the "Iconoclastic Fury" stripping many churches of their Catholic statuary & religious decoration. Open warfare broke out in 1568; in 1572 William the Silent (Prince of Orange), a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, invaded with a Protestant army, succeeded in holding 2 provinces, Holland & Zeeland. In 1579 the northern provinces joined in the Union of Utrecht & declared independence from Spain. Philip had William of Orange assassinated (1584); despite this the Dutch continued to fight under Orange's son Maurice of Nassau; in 1585 Queen Elizabeth I began providing help. The struggle continued but while Philip struggled financially, the Dutch waxed in strength. The war lasted for the rest of Philip’s reign, only ending in 1648 when Spain recognised Dutch independence
In 1578 young king Sebastian of Portugal died without descendants; a succession crisis ensured, with 3 claimants. Members of the Portuguese Council of Government declared Philip the successor; Spanish troops marched into Portugal. At Alcântara (1580) Alva imposed the rule of Philip, who was crowned king in 1581.
Charles V arranged Philip to marry Mary I of England in 1554, an unpopular match in England. As joint rulers, Philip & Mary waged war against France, resulting in the loss of Calais (1558). Mary died in 1558 childless; Philip lost all rights to the throne. He now sought the hand of Elizabeth I, who delayed answering him as she was also considering a Valois match. Many English Catholics regarded her as illegitimate; their queen was Mary Queen of Scots, grandchild Henry VII’s daughter Margaret & James IV of Scotland. Philip wanted to steer Elizabeth away from a French marriage & if possible effect a reconciliation with Rome. He therefore avoided aggression, even defending Elizabeth from a papal excommunication. In the end Elizabeth would take neither the Spanish or French offers. She secretly countenanced English piracy against Spanish trade, threatening Spanish treasure ships from the New World; English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. In 1585 Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch, promising troops & supplies to the Dutch rebels. In 1587 Mary Queen of Scots was executed, ending Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He now planned an invasion of England to return it to Rome. In 1588 he sent the Spanish Armada to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma's army in the Netherlands & convey it across the Channel. Long delays, poor communication & a lack of deep anchorage for the fleet meant the plan was doomed to fail. At the point of attack, a storm struck the Channel & devastated the Spanish fleet. They retreated in front of the English fleet at the Battle of Gravelines; most of the Armada was later sunk by harsh weather. Philip would send 3 more Armadas, 2 against England (1596, 1597), both failed; the third (1599) was diverted to the Azores & Canary Islands to fend off raids. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604), inconclusive like the Dutch war, would grind on long after both monarchs were dead.
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In 1556 Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II but war again broke out in N France & Italy; Spanish victories at St. Quentin & Gravelines led to Cateau-Cambresis (1559) & French recognition of Spanish sovereignty in the Franche-Comté. Philip's aggression against Portugal frightened both France & England & led to their support for the pretender who fled to France & then the Azores, backed by a large Anglo-French fleet. At Terceira (1582) off the Azores, the Spanish defeated a combined Anglo-French fleet. At the Battle of the Azores; Spanish victory completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire.
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During the French Wars of Religion (1562–98) Philip financed the Catholic League & Spain directly intervened in 1590 & 1592. In 1593 Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism & most French Catholics switched sides. By 1594 the only League members still active were supported by Spain. In 1595 Henry declared war on Spain to expose Philip’s cynical use of religion to advance Spanish interests. His victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française ended the Catholic League. Philip invaded in 1595, taking Doullens, Cambrai, Le Catelet, Calais & Amiens. Henry now negotiated the Peace of Vervins (1598), a restatement of Câteau-Cambrésis; Spanish forces & subsidies were withdrawn. Henry issued the Edict of Nantes giving French Protestants religious toleration. Philip had failed to oust Henry or suppress the Protestants but his involvement gained the conversion of Henry & thereby ensured Catholicism would remain France's official faith.