Goethe:
see Chapter I, Introduction page 9
Raphael:
(1483-1520) Italian painter & architect, famous for his clarity of form, ease of composition & visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. With Michelangelo & Leonardo he constitutes the trinity of great Renaissance masters. Despite an early death he was enormously productive with a large workshop. Active in the Vatican palace where he produced the frescoed Raphael Rooms (largest work of his career); also here is found his most celebrated work: The School of Athens.
Heraclitus:
Heraclitus was famous for his insistence on ever-present change as being the fundamental essence of the universe ("No man ever steps in the same river twice"). This position was complemented by a stark commitment to a unity of opposites in the world, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same". He characterized all existing entities by pairs of contrary properties, whereby no entity may ever occupy a single state at a single time. This, along with his cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally "word" or "reason").
Sophocles:
see Chapter I, Introduction page 9
Plato:
see Chapter I, Introduction page 9
Alcibiades:
see Chapter I, Introduction page 4
Themistocles:
see Chapter I, Introduction page 9
Horace:
(65-8 BC) famous Roman lyric poet; most celbrated work his Odes, 4 books of Latin lyric poems (published 23-13 BC) widely emulated; conscious imitation of Greek lyric poetry (Pindar, Sappho). He applied older forms to the social life of Rome under Augustus; they cover subjects such as Love, Friendship, Wine, Religion, Morality, Patriotism, including eulogy addressed to Augustus. He wrote while Rome changed from republic to empire. An officer in the republican army defeated at Philippi (42 BC) he was befriended by a supporter of Octavius & became a spokesman for the new regime.
Tiberius:
(aka Octavius) see Chapter I, Introduction page 4
Hiero's Syracuse:
(aka Hieron I) tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily 478-467 BC, succeeding his brother. Under him Syracuse became a major power in Sicily; he was heavily involved in Sicilian city state politics & alliances & defeated Etruscans & Carthaginians armies at Cumae (474 BC). His reign was marked by the creation of the first secret police in Greek history. A patron of literature & culture, the poets Pindar & Aeschylus were active at his court. A participant in panhellenic athletic contests he won victories in the single horse & chariot races. Following his death in 467 BC tyranny at Syracuse ended.
Baghdad:
founded mid 8th century AD as the Abbasid capital, following their victory over the Umayyad Caliphate; replacing the Sassanid capital of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (35 km SE, depopulated by late 8th century); center of the Arab caliphate in 9th & 10th centuries & largest city worldwide early 10th century. Declined in the "Iranian Intermezzo" (9th- 11th centuries) & destroyed 1258 AD in the Mongolian invasion. And see Chapter II: The Meaning of Numbers, page 73
Cairo:* see Endnote 21
In 968 AD, the Fatimids, led by general Jawhar al-Siqilli established a new dynastic capital. Egypt was conquered & a new fortified city northeast of Fustat was established. It took 4 years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah, the new capital of the caliphate. At the same time the general also commissioned building the al-Azhar Mosque (to become the 3rd -oldest university in the world). Cairo eventually become a centre of learning, with a library containing hundreds of thousands of books. When Caliph al-Mu'izz li Din Allah arrived from the old Fatimid capital in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, al-Qāhiratu ("The Victorious").
Grenada: * see Endnote 22
The Umayyad conquest of Hispania began in 711 AD & brought large parts of the Iberian Peninsula under Moorish control. In the early 11th century following the end of the Caliphate, the Berber kingdom, the Taifa of Granada, was established. Because the original capital at Illiberis was difficult to defend, the ruler transferred his residence to the higher ground of Gárnata (Grenada). It soon became an important city for Muslim Spain & by late 11th century, it spread to include the future Alhambra.
Madrid of Phillip II:
During the revolt of the Comuneros, Madrid joined the uprising against Charles V (Phillip’s father); following defeat at Villalar, the city was besieged & occupied by the royal troops. However Charles V was generous to the town & gave it the titles of Crowned & Imperial. When Francis I of France was captured at Pavia, he was imprisoned here & in 1526 the Treaty of Madrid was signed here. Following a fire in Valladolid (561) & with the traditional royal capital Toledo obsolete, the Court moved to Madrid, the Castilian stronghold. It became the political centre of the monarchy & capital of Spain, with its world Empire. In 1562 the most prominent building in N Madrid was the Alcázar, part of the walled circuit & which would suffer several fires. Philip II converted it into a royal palace (1561-1598), construction by tradesmen from the Netherlands, Italy &France. Between 1530-1594 the population of the city grew from 4,060 to over 37,500.
Philip II:
Philip II (1527-1598) King of Spain, from1556,, also Portugal (from 1581), Naples & Sicily (from 1554). Consort to Englsih Queen Mary I from 1554–58. Duke of Milan & from 1555 lord of the Netherlands. His empire included territories on every continent, including the Philippines. Under him Spain reached the height of its influence & power, The Golden Age. During his reign there were 5 state bankruptcies, partly the cause of the declaration of independence that created the Dutch Republic in 1581. He organised the Armada naval expedition against England (1588); unsuccessful, due to storms & logistical problems. Son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic.
Champs Elysees to the Louvre: * see 23
(aka Axe Historique) began with the creation of the Champs Élysées, designed in the 17th century to create a vista to the west, extending the central axis of the gardens to the royal Palace of the Tuileries, adjacent to the Louvre. Today the Tuileries Gardens (Jardins des Tuileries) remain, preserving their wide central pathway, though the palace was burned down during the Paris Commune, 1871.
Piazza St Peter’s Rome: * see Endnote 24
large plaza located in front of St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, the papal enclave inside Rome, directly west of the neighbourhood of Borgo.
Acropolis:
see Chapter II: The Meaning of Numbers, Acropolis building, p78, see Endnote 58
forum Romanum: * see Endnote 25
(aka Roman Forum) rectangular forum (plaza), located in the small valley between the Palatine & Capitoline Hills, surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings, city centre Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space (originally a marketplace) as simply the Forum. For centuries the center of day-to-day life in Rome: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues & monuments commemorated the city's great men.
Via Sacra: * see Endnote 26
main street of ancient Rome, leading from the Capitoline Hill, through some of the most important religious sites of the Forum, to the Colosseum.
Takt:
German word for the baton that an orchestra conductor uses to regulate the tempo of the music, Takt time may be thought of as a measurable “beat time,” “rate time" or "heartbeat"
andante:
music term: in a moderately slow tempo
allegro con brio:
music term: to be performed with liveliness or spirit, with energy
pueritia:
Latin-childhood, boyhood
adolescentia:
Latin - youth, young manhood
inventus:
Latin - he age of youth (20-40), young persons, young men, knights
virilitas:
Latin - male organs, virility
senectus:
Latin - senility
“Leibnizian mathematics of infinite space”: * see Endnote 27
Leibniz embraced infinity, and his writing Theodicy (1709) suggests a natural infinity; however he was less definitive when it came to mathematical infinity.
Euclidean mathematics of separate bodies:
In mathematics Euclidean geometry refers to plane geometry & solid geometry. Plane geometry is the study of a 2D geometric object called a plane, (usually a Euclidean plane) & the geometry of plane figures. Solid geometry is the study of 3D Euclidean space, which deals with the measurements of volumes of various solid figures including pyramids, prisms & other polyhedrons, cylinders; cones; truncated cones & balls bounded by spheres. Both plane and solid geometry aimed to determine area, volume, length or angles of defined (limited) &specific bodies. It is similar to the Greek kosmos, bounded by a finite celestial sphere, their religious cults, bound geographicaly by place & locale, and their finite limited political entity, the polis.
Darwinism:
see Chapter I, Introduction, Darwinism, page 35
Origin of Specie:
(aka On the Origin of Species) full title: the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1859) by Darwin ; foundation stone of evolutionary biology; introduced scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection; presented a body of evidence showing that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Evidence gathered by Darwin on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.
enunciation:
utterance or pronunciation; a formal announcement or statement.