Euler:

(1707-1783) Swiss mathematician, one of the most eminent mathematicians of the 18th century, possibly one of the greatest in history; made influential discoveries in infinitesimal calculus & graph theory, made pioneering contributions to topology & analytic number theory; he also introduced mathematical terminology & notation (notion of a mathematical function).  Spent most of his life in St Petersburg Russia & Berlin.

 

Legrange:

(1736-1813) Italian Enlightenment mathematician & astronomer; contributed to analysis, number theory, classical & celestial mechanics; succeeded Euler as director of mathematics at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin (1766); worked here for 20+ years, writing & winning prizes from the French Academy of Sciences.  His treatise on analytical mechanics (1788) was the most comprehensive treatment of classical mechanics since Newton, forming the basis for mathematical physics in the 19th century.  Moved to Paris in 1787 & was involved in the decimalisation in Revolutionary France, 1st professor of analysis at the École Polytechnique (1794).

 

Laplace:

(1749-1827) French mathematician, astronomer & physicist; his Celestial Mechanics (1799–1825) translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of problems.  First to use Laplacian differential operator for celestial mechanics; he restated & developed the nebular hypothesis (on origin of the Solar System), first to postulate the existence of black holes & idea of gravitational collapse.  He was Napoleon's examiner (in Paris, 1784); made a count of the Empire (1806) & later a marquis (1817).

 

Gluck:

(1714-1787)  composer of Italian & French opera, early classical period; born in the Upper Palatinate (Germany) , raised in Bohemia; gained prominence at the Habsburg court (Vienna), where he reformed opera's dramaturgical practices (long called for by many intellectuals).  His radical new works in the 1760s (e.g. Orfeo ed Euridice, Alceste) broke the domination of Italian opera.  In 1773 moved to Paris where he fused Italian opera with the new French opera style; his greatest success here was Iphigénie en Tauride.  Eventually returned to Vienna.

 

Haydn:

(1732-1809) Austrian composer, Classical period; instrumental in the development of chamber music (piano trio) & made significant contributions to musical form, especially the Symphony & String Quartet; court musician for the wealthy Esterházy family at remote estate- isolated from other composers & trends he was forced to become original; his music circulated widely & he was the most celebrated composer in Europe; friend & mentor of Mozart, a teacher of Beethoven.

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Mozart:

(1756-1791) Austrian composer of Classical period, child prodigy, competent on keyboard & violin, composed from age 5 & performed before European royalty; age 17 engaged as a musician at Salzburg court, but grew restless, lost position & settled in Vienna, capital of Austro-Hungary; here he achieved fame but not financial security.  In Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem (unfinished) at the time of his death. Buried in paupers grave. Most famous works include: operas- Marriage of Figaro, Barber of Seville, Magic Flute, Don Giovanni, Symphony #40 in G, Piano Sonata No. 11 in A Major, Piano Concerto No. 21, Serenade No. 13"Eine Kleine Nacht-Musik"

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Acropolis building: * see Endnote 58
ancient citadel located above Athens, containing remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural & historic significance, notably the Parthenon. the Propylaia, the Erechtheion & the Temple of Athena Nike; built under direction of Pericles (495–429 BC); the sculptor Phidias (gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos) and architects Ictinus & Callicrates, were responsible for this reconstruction following the sack of the Acropolis in 480 BC by the Persians.