Diocletian: * see Endnote 39

(244–312) Roman emperor 284-305 AD; born low status in Dalmatia, rose through the military to become Roman commander under Emperor Carus.  Upon the latter's death proclaimed emperor; in 285 AD, appointed 3 other joint rulers, the "tetrarchy" (rule of 4), fundamentally changing the structure of government; in 235 AD the empire had lapsed into crisis, facing unprecedented instability; by 305 AD it was again stable & strong.

 

sham Empire: * see Endnote 40 

during the Crisis of the 3rd Century (AD 235–284) the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressure of invasion, civil war, plague & economic depression; beginning with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own Legions, over the next 50 years 26 emperors, (prominent generals) ruled; by 268 AD 3 competing imperial states formed: the Gallic Empire; the Palmyrene Empire (eastern provinces of Syria & Egypt); and the Italian Empire.  Aurelian (270–275 AD) reunited the empire & the crisis ended with the ascension and structural reforms of Diocletian.  

 

Caliphate: (and Diocletian’s transformation): * see Endnote  41

Spengler is drawing an analogy between Diocletian’s Tetrachic regional governance and the Abbasid Sultans.  The Abbasid caliphate (750-1258 AD) extended east to Pakistan & west to Algeria.  During its lifetime, it had several capital cities but Baghdad was its main base.  This period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats to govern the territories conquered by Arab Muslims as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the Islamic community.  This was because sheer size & scale made it impossible to rule directly from Baghdad, so a highly decentralized governance structure was employed; a web of regional sultans pledged their allegiance to the caliphs & administered territory on their behalf.

 

Plotinus (and early Magian Culture):

(204-270 AD) founder of Neoplatonism, born in the Nile delta, Egypt, descent unknown (Hellenized Egyptian or Roman or Greek); took up philosophy age 27 & traveled to Alexandria; met Ammonius Saccas (possibly Indian) who had great influence on him & explains decision to visit Persia to study Persian & Indian philosophy; joined Roman invasion which failed; after much travail returned.  At the age of 40, during the reign of Philip the Arab, he came to Rome, where he stayed for most of the remainder of his life.

​

Duns Scotus:

(1266-1308) Scottish Franciscan, scholastic theologian; considered 1 of the greatest philosophers of the Middle ages; defended the Immaculate Conception (of Mary, Jesus born without sin); argued that the Incarnation was not dependent on the fact that man had sinned, will is superior to intellect & love to knowledge, the essence of heaven consists in beatific love rather than the vision of God.

​

Classical Culture:

Spengler’s term for the Greco-Roman civilization; born 1100 BC in the region around the Aegean Sea.

 

Arabian Culture:

(aka Magian Culture) Spengler’s term for the Culture/Civilization born circa 1st century BC in the region between Armenia and S. Arabia, Alexandria and Ctesiphon

 

Mandaeanism:

a gnostic religion with a strongly dualistic worldview; originated sometime in the first 3 centuries AD in Mesopotamia; followers are Semites speaking a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic; they revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enos, Noah, Shem, Aram & John the Baptist. The Aramaic manda means "knowledge" (Greek gnosis).

 

Manichaeism:

major religious movement founded by Iranian prophet Mani (216-276 AD) in the Sasanian Empire; most of its original writings lost.  Quickly spread through Aramaic-Syriac speaking regions, thriving between 3rd & 7th centuries AD & once a widespread religion briefly rivaled Christianity in replacing paganism.  Dualistic beliefs, sees struggle between light (good, spiritual world) and darkness (evil, material world); through history light is gradually removed from the world of matter & returned to the world of light (its origins). Beliefs based on local Mesopotamian gnostic & religious movements.

 

Christianity:

religious movement, grew out of Judaism as a Second Temple Judaic sect mid-1st century AD; influenced by Zoroastrianism, Gnosticism, Hellenistic religion & philosophy & Neoplatonism.  Originated in Roman Judea, spread to Europe, Middle East, Egypt, Ethiopia & India; by late 4th century was official state church of the Roman Empire.

 

Neo-Platonism:

a distinct strand of Platonic philosophy, started with Plotinus, 3rd century AD; derives the whole of reality from a single principle, "the One," an idea still popular in modern-day spirituality; synthesized ideas from various philosophical and religious cultural spheres notably the Middle Platonists (Plutarch) and the Neopythagoreans (origins 1st century BC).

​

Rome’s Imperial Fora:

series of monumental public squares (or fora), constructed in Rome between 46 BC and 113 AD; centers of politics, religion & economy for the Roman Empire; the Imperial forums although not part of the Roman Forum, are located relatively close to it.  Julius Caesar was the first to build in this section of Rome & rearranged both the Forum and the Comitium (another forum type space designated for politics)

​

the Pantheon:

Roman temple, in Rome completed by emperor Hadrian, dedicated 126 AD; circular with a portico of large granite 8 Corinthian columns under a pediment; rectangular vestibule links porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) to the sky; world's largest un-reinforced concrete dome; height to oculus & diameter of the interior circle are both 142 feet; Spengler calls this the first mosque.

 

Antioch:

founded late 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, a general of Alexander; grew during Roman Empire, becoming one of the most important cities of eastern Mediterranean Empire (under Augustus it had a population of half a million); location on spice trade route, Silk Road & Persian Royal Road gave it economic leverage, eventually rivaled Alexandria as chief city of the Near East; pivotal in emergence of both Hellenistic Judaism & early Christianity.

 

Charlemangne (and Roman Empire):

(742- 814) Charles I, King of the Franks (768-814) also King of the Lombards (774-814) and Emperor of the Romans from 800; united much of Europe; first recognized emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire; his expanded Frankish state is called the Carolingian Empire. On Xmas day 800 AD as Charlemagne knelt the Pope crowned him Imperator Romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") in Saint Peter's Basilica; a gesture intended to show the continuation of the unbroken line of Emperors from Augustus to Constantine VI.

 

Revennate mosaics: * see Endnote 42

Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, provides important examples of early Christian Byzantine mosaics, depicting stories from the Old Testament & symbols of the 4 Evangelists.  The vault in the presbytery is ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit & flowers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God, supported by 4 angels, the surfaces covered in a profusion of flowers, stars, birds & animals.  Above the arch, 2 angels hold a disc & the cities Jerusalem & Bethlehem.  All executed in the Hellenistic-Roman tradition: lively & imaginative, rich colors & a certain perspective, with vivid depictions of the landscape, plants & birds.

​

Arabian indeterminateness (and Magian mathematics):

Spengler's description of a prime character of the Magian Soul: not precisely fixed in extent; indefinite; uncertain; an undefined quantity or an equation able to be satisfied by more than one value for each unknown.

 

the function (and Western mathematics):

a relation between a set of inputs & a set outputs, each input related to exactly one output;  same output may be produced by more than one input, but each input gives only 1 output; input variables sometimes referenced as arguments of the function.

 

Abbassid period:

(750-1258 AD) the caliphs of Baghdad, saw the “Golden Age” of Islam; overthrew the Umayyad in 750 AD, as descendants of Abbas (youngest uncle of the Prophet); accused Umayyads of ruling as emperors not deputies of the Prophet, promised to abolish the dynastic system & restore the original process by which the “best among” the Muslims would be Caliph; flourished for 2 centuries, declined slowly as the Mamuks (a Turkish army they had created!) gained ascendency.  Ended in 1258 AD when the Mongols, sacked Baghdad.

  

Al-Khwarizmi:

 (780-850) Persian scholar, mathematician, astronomer & geographer in Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate, father of algebra.  His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion & Balancing first systematic solution of linear & quadratic equations; first to teach algebra as independent discipline, introduced methods of "reduction" & "balancing" (transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation); his translation of Indian mathematics introduced the decimal positional number system to the West in 12th century; the term "algorithm" derived from his name and the term "algebra" is derived from one of his operations.

 

arabesque: * see Endnote 43

form of artistic adornment consisting of surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling & interlacing foliage, tendrils or plain lines, often combined with other elements; a fundamental element of Islamic art, developed from what was already a long tradition; because Islam forbids depiction of human form (it is non-figurative) such decoration plays prominent role in its art & architecture.

 

Byzantium and Sassanid Empire (and arabesque):

although associated with Islam, this style predates Islam; it became dominant in Islamic art owing to the prohibition on human figures; neither the Byzantines or Sassanid artist suffered under this rule & consequentially arabesque occupied a purely decorative function in these cultures.

 

Constantinian high-relief: * see Endnote 44

The Arch of Constantine, a triumphal arch in Rome between the Colosseum & the Palatine Hill, erected by Senate (315 AD) commemorating Constantine's victory over Maxentius at Milvian Bridge;  largest (and last) of the existing triumphal arches in Rome; spans the Via Triumphalis, the way taken by emperors entering Rome in triumph.  Dedicated to Constantine, but included decorative material from earlier work from the time of the emperors Trajan, Hadrian & Marcus Aurelius (relief work from 2nd century monuments); it is useful to compare these 2 pieces of sculpture.