9.
law only knows corporeal persons & material: *
In the Athenian legal system, the courts were a system for settling disputes & resolving arguments, not enforcing a coherent system of rules, rights & obligations. They were procedural and concerned with the administration of justice rather than substantive law. Substantive law is the set of laws that governs how members of a society are to behave. Procedural law are simply the set of procedures for making, administering & enforcing substantive law. Substantive law is abstract and defines rights & responsibilities in civil law, and crimes & punishments in criminal law. It may be codified in statutes or exist through precedent in common law.
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The Gortyn code was the civil law of the ancient Greek city-state Gortyn in S Crete & dates from 500-450 BC. It represents the only known substantial corpus of Greek law of antiquity outside Athens. It deals with disputed ownership of slaves, rape & adultery, the rights of a wife when divorced or a widow, the custody of children born after divorce, inheritance, sale & mortgaging of property, ransom, children of mixed (slave, free & foreign) marriages and adoption. The code devotes a great deal of attention to the allocation & management of property.
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10.
Classical temple:
The stylobate has a slight parabolic upward curvature (giving added strength & allowing water to run off); to compensate the columns lean slightly inwards. The effect of these optical refinements serve as a reverse optical illusion. The Greeks knew 2 parallel lines appear to bow (curve outward) when intersected by converging lines. In this case, the ceiling & floor may seem to bow in the presence of the surrounding angles of the building. The designers wanted to compensate for this illusion by creating their own counter curves. The effects also serve to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in a building without curves.
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11.
Apollonian physics (material, form, position): *
MATERIAL: Aristotle believed that 4 elements make up everything: earth, air, fire & water. The heavens were made of a special weightless & incorruptible (unchangeable) 5th element called "aether". Matter was composed of the 4 elements in differing proportions.
FORM: He asserts the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. The second factor, formal cause, is its form, the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is as determined by the definition, form or pattern.
POSITION: All bodies move toward their natural place. For earth & water that place is the center of the geocentric universe; for water it is a concentric shell around the earth because earth is heavier it sinks in water. The position for air is a concentric shell surrounding that of water; bubbles rise in water. The natural place of fire is higher than that of air but below the innermost celestial sphere (carrying the Moon).
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12.
Faustian physics (movement force mass): *
MOVEMENT
Newton's first law states that if the net force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity of the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity expressing an object's speed & direction. The first law can be stated mathematically (if mass is a non-zero constant) as:
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Consequently, an object at rest will stay at rest unless a force acts upon it; an object in motion will not change its velocity unless a force acts on it. This is known as uniform motion. A change in position of an object over time, as described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time & speed; it is observed by attaching a reference point to an observer & measuring the change in position of the body relative to that point. If the position is not changing with respect to the point, the body is said to be at rest or motionless.
FORCE
Force is mass times acceleration, or F= m * a (Newton’s 2nd Law). An object with a larger mass needs a stronger force to be moved at the same acceleration as an object with a smaller mass. Force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object; it can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes moving from a state of rest), to accelerate. Force can also be described as a push or a pull. It has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's 2d law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. Objects only accelerate if there are forces acting on them. This law tells us exactly how much an object will accelerate for a given net force. Acceleration, a, is proportional to the net force, ΣF, and is inversely proportional to the mass, m. If the net force were doubled, the acceleration of the object would be twice as large; if the mass of the object were doubled, its acceleration would be half as large.
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Newton’s 3rd law states that forces between 2 objects exist in equal magnitude & opposite direction: if object A exerts a force FA on object B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB on A, the two forces are equal in magnitude & opposite in direction: FA = −FB. The 3rd law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies & is referred to as the action-reaction law, with FA called the "action" and FB the "reaction"
MASS
see entry below
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13.
mass (ratio between force & acceleration): *
In everyday usage, mass and "weight" are often used interchangeably. Conceptually, "mass" (measured in kilograms) refers to an intrinsic property of an object, whereas "weight" (measured in newtons) measures an object's resistance to deviating from its natural course of free fall, which can be influenced by gravity. The force known as "weight" is proportional to mass and acceleration in all situations where the mass is accelerated away from free fall. For example, when a body is at rest in a gravitational field (rather than in free fall), it must be accelerated by a force from the surface of a planetary body such as the Earth or the Moon. This force keeps the object from going into free fall. Weight is the opposing force in such circumstances, and is thus determined by the acceleration of free fall. On the surface of the Earth, the weight W of an object is related to its mass m by W = mg, where g = 9.80665 m/s2 is the acceleration due to Earth's gravitational field,
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14.
instrumental music of 18th century masters: *
The symphony was the most important developed form during this period, other forms included: the sonata, trio, string quartet & the solo concerto featuring a virtuoso solo performer playing a violin, piano or flute, accompanied by an orchestra. The masters were Haydn (1732-1809) & Mozart (1756-91), while Beethoven (1770-1827) & Schubert (1797-1828) are regarded as transitional figures from Classical to Romantic. The period is sometimes referred to as the era of Viennese Classic, since Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Salieri & Beethoven all worked in Vienna & Schubert was born there.
Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque & is less complex. It is homophonic, using a clear melody line over a subordinate chordal accompaniment, though counterpoint again re-emerges in the later decades of the period. It also makes use of style galant which emphasized light elegance in place of the Baroque's dignified seriousness & grandeur. Variety & contrast became more pronounced. The orchestra increased in size, range & power. The harpsichord was replaced by the piano.
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Neoclassicism dominated aesthetics after 1750; it was a movement in the arts which drew inspiration from Classical Antiquity & its perceived ideals of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur" (Winckelmann). It impacted on musical taste, placing a premium on simplicity. The layered music of the Baroque era was increasingly seen as too complex, too cluttered. The new music aimed at simplicity, not complexity. It used formality & emphasized order and hierarchy. It used a clearer & cleaner style, with clearer divisions between parts (a clear, single melody accompanied by chords), brighter contrasts and "tone colors" (achieved by the use of dynamic changes & modulations to more keys). Along with this the orchestra increased in size allowing for a more powerful sound. The Enlightenment also had an impact on public taste & consciousness. Chief among these were the ideas of "natural philosophy" especially Newton's physics. His work suggested that structures should be well-founded in axioms & be both well-articulated & orderly. This taste for structural affected music which began moving away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque towards homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony. Chords became a much more prevalent feature of music, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part. As a result, the tonal structure of a piece of music became more audible.
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15.
Stamitz, strict canon: *
Composers of his Mannheim school played a major role in the development of the classical period's genres & the classical symphonic form. Their influence is due to their high reputation & wide publication of their compositions (notably Paris & London), some published multiple times by different publishers. One of their chief innovations was the 4 movement symphony form, introducing the minuet as its 3rd movement (originally one of the Baroque suite's movements). They also played a major role in the development of sonata form, the form of the classical symphony's first movement.
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16.
late-Beethoven quartets and symphonies: *
The defeat of Napoleon in 1815 saw the restoration of the monarchy & the failure of Republicanism, a movement Beethoven had supported. A post-war depression followed Waterloo, money for the arts was scarce. Beethoven had financial problems & was also spending money to care for his nephew Carl. He was engaged in a long custody battle for Carl, which he ultimately won. He suffered health problems, he was frequently ill & bedridden, his hearing was almost gone by 1818. His music during this period shows a marked difference in character and sound, in many ways very new. He was writing music almost exclusively for musical connoisseurs, few who appreciated the new style. He also incorporated the polyphonic styles of Bach & Handel into this period, and many fugues are found in these compositions. During this period he wrote the least number of compositions, but produced the longest of his instrumental works & longest piano sonata, theme and variations, choral work, string quartet & symphony. All were composed while he was completely deaf.
Symphony 9.
His 9th Symphony contains the universal message of brotherhood. He began working on it in 1822. It is famous for several reasons: first symphony to feature a singing chorus; longest & largest symphony of the day (his most ambitious) ; it inspired future composers of the Romantic Era. When it premiered 9th, May 1824, Beethoven was completely deaf. Connoisseurs & the public believed that he had lost the ability to compose. At the end of the performance the audience went wild, yelling, cheering, and throwing hats, handkerchiefs into the air. It had a profound influence on the next generation. It intimidated many, scaring them away from symphonies. Wagner hand copied the entire symphony & transcribed it for piano (as did Liszt). He was so intimidated that he never completed a symphony, instead moving in new direction, taking the artistic transcendence that the 9th brought to music and applying it to his music dramas. Brahms was also intimidated by the 9th; it took him over 20 years to complete his first symphony & when premiered critics called it Beethoven's 10th. Brahms agreed.
String Quartet 13.
The last works Beethoven would compose in his life were the five string quartets. One of the most notable of these works is the Grosse Fugue (String Quartet 13). It was his most ambitious compositions & was incredibly difficult for his contemporaries to perform & for 19th century audiences to hear. After a slow start it launches into the first of its fugues, an intense & unrelenting gallop that has counter subjects implying different meters, while harsh harmonic clashes are simultaneously occurring. Only in the 20th century was it appreciated, indeed it sounds like a 20th century composition, proving that despite his deafness he still had the genius to write music that was far ahead of his time.